Table A3.

Challenges posed by the pandemic, institutional responses, influencing factors and impacts on clients in studied countries

Country	Challenges introduced by the pandemic	Institutional response	Influencing factors: theoretical categories	Outcomes for users in the first wave. Did they receive help, in lower numbers, reduced form?
Czech Republic	Day centres closed Common rooms of residential centres closed Difficulties with implementing distancing regulations Lack of PPE in the beginning	Day centres transitioned to outreach work (such as giving out food and masks) Night shelters established 24/7 provision New programmes developed for residents to keep them occupied Hotels transitioned to emergency accommodation	Shortages of staff, committed staff Some organisations established crisis team that responded to changing regulations Donations from public and companies Changing regulations/unclear or harmful rules Growing resentment and criminalisation of homeless	Less access to social services due to closure of day centres Residents struggled with restricted movement
Estonia	Day centres closed, lost access to psychosocial support Increased workload and operating costs Difficulties with implementing distancing regulations Clients with psychological disorders needed additional support	Soup kitchen reorganised to provide food parcels Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet Dissemination of information on regulations and pandemic Reorganisation to meet hygiene and distancing requirements	Shortage of staff, committed and experienced staff Lack of support for and supervision of staff Increased donations Help from official institutions Lack of official guidelines, inconsistency of instructions from city government Lack of recognition of the contribution of social workers	Lack of social support First resentment and then habituation among clients with regard to new rules Residential care clients were most protected, services were adapted to their needs Homeless night shelter's clients were well taken care of
Finland	Day centres closed Social service activities suspended Difficulties with implementing distancing regulations Teleworking was not possible, despite the instruction, because the managing operation was working better on site Lack of PPE in the beginning	Day centre was focused solely on food distribution Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet Group sessions replaced by one‐on‐one discussions Quick return to everyday life with guidelines and PPE	Shortages of staff and volunteers, commitment of staff Established communal ways of working Collaborative residents Collaboration between NGOs Slow response and no specific guidelines from city authorities	Lack of a social circle and normal routine Good collaboration between personnel and clients Feeling of solidarity among clients Misinformation on available services Old clients were missing and the number of new clients doubled, presumably due to layoffs
Germany	Many food banks closed Number of clients increased Emergency housing opened Difficulties in implementing hygiene and distancing regulations Lack of PPE	Food banks changed to handing out packages Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet No recreational activities Social media introduced to interact with potential donors	Staff shortages Donations from citizens and companies Assistance from authorities Volunteers Less contact with (financial) donors led to a decrease in donations	More clients accommodated with the help of emergency residential housing Homeless remaining on streets, not receiving sufficient psychosocial, food, or hygiene support Homeless with mental illness had difficulties accessing shelters and articulating their needs Feeling of solidarity among clients Lack of a social circle
Hungary	Day centres closed, lost access to psychosocial support and hygiene facilities Number of clients increased Lack of PPE Challenge to provide assistance remotely Difficulties in implementing hygiene and distancing regulations Not enough accommodation for new clients	Food parcels instead of hot meals in day centres Night hostels shifted to full provision, leading to challenges providing catering Change to digital counselling	Staff shortages, new volunteers Old infrastructure of buildings not suitable for high capacity and social distancing Establishment of National Humanitarian Coordination Council Donations from public and companies Lack of information from the government	Social exclusion of homeless increased Some homeless had to stay on the streets due to overcrowding of shelters Psychologically fragile clients struggled to go without help Lack of a social circle
Italy	Day centres closed, lost access to psychosocial support and hygiene facilities Number of clients increased Challenge keeping in contact with usual clients remotely Many residential facilities unable to accept new clients Difficulties in implementing hygiene and distancing regulations, especially among users with drug addiction and psychological problems	Additional support (extended Wi‐Fi network and electronic recharging, delivery of laundry to outside the centre) Day centres reorganised into a dormitory Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet Extending opening hours to plan access to showers and washing machines, sanitisation etc. Dissemination of information on regulations and pandemic situation	Flexible and committed staff Continuous training Social campaign to raise awareness of homelessness increased support Networking between care organisations Slow response and no specific guidelines from city authorities	Clients in residential centres and remotely received continuous support Improved health habits thanks to training by NGOs Most fragile people were less able to reach the centres Psychologically fragile clients struggled to go without help Migrants were frustrated, being banned from the streets and having nowhere to stay
Lithuania	Day centres closed, lost access to psychosocial support Need for food support increased significantly Higher operating costs due to increased need for food support and rearrangements Limited resources, lack of PPE	Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet Day centres started to provide food parcels Rearrangements to meet regulations of social distancing and hygiene (working in shifts, social distancing) Recruiting volunteers via media campaign	A significant number of new volunteers Donations from public and companies Cooperation between government institutions and social support organisations, between care organisations Lack of guidelines and municipality support (except medical supplies)	Homeless received shelter service Digital counselling was not available or suitable to everyone New clients experiencing psychological strain struggled without help
Norway	Day centres closed, clients lost access to psychosocial assistance and hygiene facilities In residential settings, social activities stopped, common rooms closed, personal contact with clients suspended Difficulties with implementing distancing regulations	Day centres transitioned to outreach to follow up with clients Psychosocial support and counselling via telephone and internet Extended opening hours Serving food through windows/food truck	Shortages of staff, new volunteers Management responded to crisis quickly and inventively Cooperation with municipality to obtain PPE Donations from government, public and companies	Difficulty following up with clients Misinformation was a big problem in day centres, but not in residential centres Lack of social support Psychologically fragile clients struggled to go without help
Portugal	Difficulties in maintaining social distancing among service users and staff Meetings with elderly cancelled and contact had to be made by telephone Need for food support increased Several retirement homes closed	Food provision programme transitioned to serving food ‘at home' ‘Meals on Wheels’ programme expanded to meet increased demand Addition of new facilities to accommodate more individuals Night shelters converted to 24‐hour day centres to reduce unnecessary movement and protect homeless	Staff shortages Increased donations Good relations between the local government and care organisations Recognition of the level of care provided by organisations Mental strain on staff to comply with regulations and maintain high level of protection Increase in staff numbers due to government‐funded programme Insufficient help from local health authorities Increase in volunteer numbers for certain services	Non‐Portuguese nationals (that is, from Brazil) experienced helplessness due to being a foreigner and shame in asking for assistance Families were left without income and had difficulties accessing state support Staff developed new programmes to combat boredom, installed televisions in bedrooms, and even bought a new pet for the home
The Netherlands	Day centres closed, lost access to psychosocial support and hygiene facilities Number of clients increased Lack of housing for homeless	Day centres halted usual activities, transitioned to food distribution Increase in food distributed Hotels transitioned to emergency accommodation	Staff shortages, new volunteers Increase in food donations	More homeless were able to be housed in emergency accommodation Psychologically fragile clients struggled to go without help Clients were grateful to staff, not aggressive or stressed

Source: authors.