Table 1.

In vivo and in vitro models of pulmonary barrier to study acute inflammatory diseases.

In vivo models

In vitro models

Analysis of pulmonary microcirculation micro-computer tomography (CT) (47) single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) (48) microsphere techniques (49) intravital microscopy (IVM) (50, 51) combinable with e.g. optical coherence tomography (OCT) (62, 63), multispectral oximetry (55), or two-photon microscopy (54) Analysis of pulmonary mechanics whole-body plethysmography (90) low-frequency oscillometry technique (LFOT) (92) fitting of transpulmonary pressure to a multiple-linear model of flow- and volume-dependence in mice (95) measurement of forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume 1 (FEV1) (96)

Analysis of pulmonary inflammation and barrier function air-liquid interface (ALI) models (106–110) 2D in vitro models, e.g. using AMs, AECs and pulmonary fibroblasts (PF) (139, 140) co-culture models in ALI, e.g. using AMs (122) 3D in vitro models in ALI ALI 3D human airway models (151–154) 3D spheroid cultures by ultrasound trap-based technique (157, 158) 3D bioprinting in vitro models (162, 163) 2D pulmonary stem cell models (167) human lung organoid models (172, 173, 181) lung-on-a-chip (LOAC) model (190) precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) models (196–199)