Figure 1.

The manufacturing process, modification methods, and application strategies of cellular vesicles in combinational immunotherapy of cancer. (A) The process of isolating cell membrane-derived vesicles from parental cells. (B) Methods for modifying substances such as polyethylene glycol, tumor targeting peptide and nucleic acid aptamer on the surface of cellular vesicles. (C) Cellular vesicles inherit antitumor proteins that the parental cells overexpress through gene editing. (D) Cellular vesicles are hybridized with different materials such as cell membranes from other sources, bacterial membranes and liposomes to obtain multiple components and functions for cancer immunotherapy. (E) Free drugs, drug-loaded nanoparticles or oncolytic viruses are encapsulated in cellular vesicles for delivery to the tumor lesions to activate antitumor immunity. (F) In response to exogenous stimulation, immune cells produce a variety of tumor growth inhibitors including surface markers, intracellular proteins, mRNA for pro-inflammatory cytokines, and certain miRNAs, which can be retained in cellular vesicles.