FIGURE 3.

Biofilm formation during the life cycle of Vibrio cholerae. In the aquatic environment, V. cholerae is present in two states: a highly motile planktonic state and an attached state on zooplankton, phytoplankton, carcasses, and sediment surfaces, the latter of which eventually forms a biofilm. Type IV pili, mannose‐sensitive hemagglutinin (MSHA) pili, and flagella contribute to the initial attachment to living and non‐living surfaces. Then, cells produce an extracellular matrix and polysaccharides that form mature biofilms. It is not clear whether there is loss of flagella and pili during biofilm formation. However, it has been reported that flagella are shed in the stationary phase. V. cholerae can infect humans from this aquatic environment and cause seasonal epidemics. When the bacteria colonize the intestine, aggregates of floating cells and biofilm‐forming cells producing TCP pili have been observed. These are expelled as stool and can reinfect new humans or return to the aquatic environment. The figure was created based on a previous study by Teschler et al. (2015)