TABLE 1.
Baseline characteristics (N = 150)
| Variables | All | T1DM and HbA1c > 58 mmol/mol | T1DM and HbA1c ≤ 58 mmol/mol | T2DM and HbA1c > 58 mmol/mol | T2DM and HbA1c ≤ 58 mmol/mol | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 150) | (N = 26) | (N = 49) | (N = 38) | (N = 37) | ||
| Age | 49.2 ± 14.5 | 42.7 ± 14.0 | 40.8 ± 14.8 | 56.9 ± 9.6 | 56.3 ± 10.3 | <0.001 |
| Sex, n (%) | ||||||
| Female | 68 (45.3) | 10 (38.5) | 24 (49.0) | 20 (52.6) | 14 (37.8) | 0.491 |
| Male | 82 (54.7) | 16 (61.5) | 25 (51.0) | 18 (47.4) | 23 (62.2) | |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 28.7 (5.6) | 27.9 (5.1) | 24.6 (3.9) | 32.7 (5.3) | 30.5 (4.5) | <0.001 |
| Vaccine, n (%) | ||||||
| BioNTech Pfizer | 129 (86.0) | 24 (92.2) | 40 (81.6) | 35 (92.1) | 30 (81.1) | 0.542 |
| Moderna | 13 (8.7) | 1 (3.9) | 5 (10.2) | 3 (7.9) | 4 (10.8) | |
| AstraZeneca | 8 (5.3) | 1 (3.9) | 4 (8.2) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (8.1) | |
| Duration of diabetes | 16.0 ± 12.0 | 23.6 ± 13.6 | 18.1 ± 12.9 | 13.5 ± 9.4 | 10.6 ± 8.5 | <0.001 |
| Diabetes therapy, n (%) | ||||||
| Insulin | 104 (69.3) | 26 (100.0) | 48 (98.0) a | 21 (55.3) | 9 (24.3) | <0.001 |
| Metformin | 56 (37.3) | ‐ | ‐ | 28 (73.7) | 28 (75.7) | 0.843 |
| DPP‐4 inhibitors | 19 (12.7) | ‐ | ‐ | 12 (31.6) | 7 (18.9) | 0.208 |
| SGLT2 inhibitors | 27 (18.0) | ‐ | ‐ | 16 (42.1) | 11 (29.7) | 0.264 |
| GLP‐1RAs | 15 (10.0) | ‐ | ‐ | 8 (21.1) | 7 (18.9) | 0.817 |
| Comorbidity | ||||||
| Hypertension, n (%) | 66 (44.0) | 7 (26.9) | 9 (18.4) | 25 (65.8) | 25 (67.6) | <0.001 |
| Coronary heart disease, n (%) | 14 (9.3) | 1 (3.9) | 2 (4.1) | 6 (15.8) | 5 (13.5) | 0.160 |
| Myocardial infarction, n (%) | 7 (4.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 4 (10.5) | 2 (5.4) | 0.209 |
| Stroke, n (%) | 5 (3.3) | 1 (3.9) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (7.9) | 1 (2.7) | 0.169 |
| Heart failure, n (%) | 4 (2.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 2 (5.3) | 1 (2.7) | 0.830 |
| PAD, n (%) | 10 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.1) | 4 (10.5) | 4 (11.1) | 0.232 |
| PTCA/CABG, n (%) | 7 (4.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 3 (7.9) | 3 (8.1) | 0.327 |
| CVD, n (%) | 15 (10.0) | 1 (3.9) | 2 (4.1) | 6 (15.8) | 6 (16.2) | 0.111 |
| Hyperlipidaemia, n (%) | 70 (46.7) | 11 (42.3) | 12 (24.5) | 25 (65.8) | 22 (59.5) | <0.001 |
| Liver disease, n (%) | 23 (15.3) | 1 (3.9) | 1 (2.0) | 9 (23.7) | 12 (32.4) | <0.001 |
| History of cancer, n (%) | 8 (5.3) | 2 (7.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (5.3) | 4 (10.8) | 0.083 |
| Microvascular complications | ||||||
| Retinopathy, n (%) | 21 (14.0) | 7 (26.9) | 6 (12.2) | 5 (13.2) | 3 (8.1) | 0.215 |
| Polyneuropathy, n (%) | 29 (19.3) | 3 (11.5) | 3 (6.1) | 15 (39.5) | 8 (21.6) | 0.001 |
| Laboratory values | ||||||
| HbA1c, mmol/mol | 56.7 ± 12.5 | 67.9 ± 9.8 | 49.3 ± 6.7 | 67.8 ± 9.3 | 47.5 ± 6.9 | <0.001 |
| eGFR, mL/min/1.73m2 | 92.5 ± 20.9 | 96.3 ± 26.5 | 101.5 ± 17.5 | 80.6 ± 18.9 | 89.6 ± 15.9 | <0.001 |
| HDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 1.51 ± 0.50 | 1.63 ± 0.57 | 1.79 ± 0.44 | 1.22 ± 0.34 | 1.37 ± 0.47 | <0.001 |
| LDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 2.36 ± 0.88 | 2.46 ± 0.84 | 2.43 ± 0.75 | 2.2 ± 0.95 | 2.38 ± 1.02 | 0.633 |
| Triglycerides, mmol/L | 1.32 ± 1.14 | 1.13 ± 0.53 | 2.01 ± 1.88 | 0.89 ± 0.35 | 1.3 ± 0.74 | 0.121 |
Note: Qualitative variables are presented as frequencies and percentages (%). Quantitative variables are presented as means and standard deviations (±SD). Chi‐squared or Fischer's exact tests were applied to compare qualitative variables with diabetes groups. One‐way analysis of variance tests were applied to compare quantitative variables with diabetes groups.
Abbreviations: CVD, cardiovascular disease; DPP‐4, dipeptidyl peptidase‐4; GLP‐1RA, glucagon‐like peptide‐1 receptor agonist; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein; PAD, peripheral artery disease; PTCA, percutaneous transluminal coronary angiography, CABG, coronary artery bypass graft; SGLT2, sodium glucose cotransporter‐2; T1DM, type 1 diabetes; T2DM, type 2 diabetes.
One participant was recently diagnosed with type 1 diabetes and off insulin at the time of enrolment (honeymoon period).