TABLE 1.

Summary of cognitive findings in clinical and preclinical studies.

Clinical
Study type	Gender % (♂/♀)	Developmental stage at test	Finding	References
Prospective cohort	52/48	6 months	PTE in both genders → impairment in attentional control, working memory, and inhibition.	Wiebe et al., 2014
Prospective cohort	50/50	3 years	PTE in boys → increased hyperactivity–inattention and conduct problems. PTE in girls → increased conduct-only problems.	Hutchinson et al., 2010
Retrospective cohort	38/62	13–18 years	PTE in girls → reductions in auditory and visual attention performance accuracy.	Jacobsen et al., 2007
Retrospective cohort	Not stated	6–8 months	PTE in both genders → less positive affect and greater irritability. PTE in males → lower levels of approach, gross motor movement, reactivity, and attention.	Willoughby et al., 2007
Prospective cohort	49/51	7 years	PTE ADHD association greater in males.	Rodriguez and Bohlin, 2005
Retrospective cohort	Not stated	5–16 years	PTE in both genders → Increased ADHD symptoms.	Thapar et al., 2003
Case-control	50/50	6–17 years	Both genders with ADHD → 2.1 times greater likelihood of PTE.	Mick et al., 2002
Preclinical
Nicotine treatment	Rodent strain	Exposure period; test start	Finding	References
Vapour: 18 mg/ml Nic, PG:VG Veh, Air Control 3 h/d, 7 d/w	CD-1 mice	GD0.5–GD17.5; PD56	PG/VG with and without Nic → deficit in NOR.	Church et al., 2020
Drinking water: 300 μg/ml	NMRI mice	GD(−7)–PD1; PD42–49	PNE in both sexes → deficit in Y-maze SAB.	Polli et al., 2020
Drinking water: 100 μg/ml	C57Bl/6 mice	GD(−21)–PD21 (after birth via breast milk); PD90	PNE males → deficit in Y-maze SAB and OBA. No deficit in cliff avoidance task for any group.	Zhang et al., 2018
Drinking water: 100 μg/ml	C57Bl/6 mice	GD(−21)–PD1; PD60–90	PNE males → deficit in Y-maze SAB. Nic in both sexes → deficit in OBA and NOR.	Zhu et al., 2017
Osmotic minipump: 6 mg/kg/d	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD4–PD1; PD210	PNE in both sexes → deficit in MWM.	Li et al., 2015
Drinking water: 200 μg/ml	C57Bl/6J mice	GD0–GD13, GD0–PD0, GD14–P7, GD0–PD7, PD0–PD7; PD42–PD56	PNE in males → deficit in Y-maze SAB for GD0–PD7, GD14–PD7; deficits in OBA for GD0–PD7, GD14–PD7, and GD0–PD0. Nic in both sexes → Deficit in SAB for GD0–PD0 and GD14–PD0; Deficit in OBA for GD14–PD0.	Alkam et al., 2013b
Osmotic minipump: 6 mg/kg/d	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD3–PD1; PD 60 and 180	PNE in males → greater and longer-term active avoidance deficits than females.	Vaglenova et al., 2008
Osmotic minipump: 0.96 mg/kg/d	Long–Evans rats	GD4–PD22 (after birth via breast milk); PD60	PNE in females → mild deficits in MWM.	Eppolito and Smith, 2006
Osmotic minipump: 6 mg/kg/d	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD3–PD1; PD 45	PNE in males → greater avoidance deficits than females.	Vaglenova et al., 2004
Osmotic minipump: 4 mg/kg/d	Long-Evans rats	GD4–GD21; PD27–PD37, PD63–PD73	PNE in both sexes → no deficits in either sex.	Cutler et al., 1996
Osmotic minipump: 2 mg/kg/d	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD4–GD20; PD50	PNE in males → Deficit in T-maze SAB, Nic in both sexes → No deficits in RAM.	Levin et al., 1996
Osmotic minipump: 2 mg/kg/d	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD4–GD20; PD22–PD52	PNE in females → Longer response duration in RAM.	Levin et al., 1993
S.C.: 1.5 mg/kg/d	HS/ibg mice	GD9–GD18; PD50	PNE in both sexes → Deficit in MWM and RAM.	Yanai et al., 1992
Drinking water: 6.0 mg/kg/day	Sprague–Dawley rats	GD(−15)–PD1; PD45–65	PNE in both sexes → Deficit in RAM.	Sorenson et al., 1991
S.C.: 0.5 mg/kg/d	Wistar rats	GD1–GD20; PD60	PNE in males → deficit in avoidance learning. Nic in females → potentiated avoidance learning.	Genedani et al., 1983

Nic, Nicotine; Veh, vehicle; PG:VG, Propylene Glycol:Vegetable Glycerin; H, hour; D, day; W, week; GD, Gestation Day; PD, Postnatal Day; SAB, spontaneous alternating behaviour; OBA, object-based attention; NOR, Novel Object Recognition; MWM, Morris Water Maze.