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. 2022 Jul 11;18(12):4768–4780. doi: 10.7150/ijbs.75056

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Proposed risk factors and relevant pathophysiological consequences of long COVID development. Old age, pre-existing comorbidities, and incomplete COVID-19 vaccination are well-established risk factors of acute-COVID-19 severity, which subsequently increase the risk for long COVID. Altered clinical parameters such as immunoglobins, inflammation cytokines, and microbiome profile could reflect the progression of long COVID. Such predisposition may also have an impact on recovery. COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019; CRP: c-reactive protein; IgG: immunoglobulin G; IgM: immunoglobulin M; IL-6: interleukin 6; RAS: renin-angiotensin system; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.