Table 4.

The relationship between the four themes that influence positive social interdependence in online collaborative learning and the three subcategories of social interdependence theory

Themes	Characteristics of online environment	Subcategories
		Outcome	Means	Boundary
Communication	Strengthening verbal communication Decreasing non-verbal communication Difficulty conducting multiple communication	Increased Decreased Decreased
Task-sharing process	Quick transition to smaller group or individual work Insufficient discussion for integration	— —	— Decreased	Decreased —
Perception of other groups	Difficulty observing and interacting with other groups	Decreased	–	Decreased
Working facilities	Use of printed materials at home Easier access of digital materials Performance limitation of devices Group work in the cloud service	— — — Increased	Increased Increased Decreased Increased	–