Fig. 5. Recent trends in the development of cell seeded biorobotic systems.

Concept design of a self-propelled biohybrid flagellum (right) with a similar motion to a spermatozoa (left) (a). Map of the predicted velocity as a function of head and tail dimensions of the biohybrid flagellum (b). Schematic of a two-tailed swimming biorobot (c). A sequence of images of the actuation of the two tailed swimmer (d) and the traveled distance and calculated velocity (e)¹²⁵ (reprinted with permission from Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited: Nature Communications, A self-propelled biohybrid swimmer at low Reynolds number, Williams et al, Copyright 2014) Schematic diagram of the movement of a different biorobot, where the contraction of the cardiomyocyte bends the thin PDMS cantilever (f) of the floating or stationary biorobots (g). Immunostaining of cardiomyocyte marker, troponin-I (left) and actin cytoskeleton (right) show the growth of the cells without alignment (h)⁶⁴. A tissue-engineered medusoid (i) with biomimetic jellyfish propulsion (j). Time lapse of a stroke cycle of a jellyfish and the medusoid (k)¹³⁰ (reprinted with permission from Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited.: Springer Nature, Nature Biotechnology, A tissue-engineered jellyfish with biomimetic propulsion, Nawroth et al., Copyright 2012)) Artificial intelligence assisted design process of biorobots with predictable motion paths employing contractile (red) and passive (cyan) cell-based building blocks (l, left) as well as their in vivo realization using cardiomyocyte and epidermal cell progenitors (l, right). Predicted and in vivo movement of the designed models (m)¹²⁸ (designing and manufacturing reconfigurable organisms and Transferal from silico to vivo by Kriegman et al. (CC BY 4.0)).