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. 2022 Jul 22;20:110. doi: 10.1186/s12964-022-00919-y

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — Several therapeutic outcomes after application of Exo in ischemic conditions such as stroke. Exo can promote angiogenesis via the regulation of several signaling pathways, leading to improved vascularization into the ischemic areas. Besides the angiogenic potential of Exo, these nanoparticles can induce neurogenesis via the proliferation and migration of NSCs. The proliferation of oligodendrocytes and the synthesis of myelin can help the injured neurons to overcome the insulting conditions. Due to the immunomodulatory properties, Exo promote M1 to M2 phenotype switching in microglia and reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines