Risk differences are adjusted for HIV status (positive or negative), first haemoglobin concentration in pregnancy (restricted cubic splines with five knots at 9·5 g/dL, 10·2 g/dL, 11·9 g/dL, 13·4 g/dL, and 13·8 g/dL), first weight in pregnancy (restricted cubic splines with five knots at 47·9 kg, 53·5 kg, 62·0 kg, 73·5 kg, and 86·0 kg), region of first antenatal care visit, age (restricted cubic splines with three knots at 19, 27, and 36 years), year of booking (2014–16, 2017–18, and 2019–20), trimester of booking (first [<12 weeks’ gestation] or second [12–24 weeks’ gestation]), employment (salaried, other, or unknown), education (secondary or higher, primary or lower, and missing), parity (first or missing, and second or more), season (dry [April–October], rainy [November–March]), smoking (yes, no, or missing), and alcohol (yes, no, or missing) via inverse probability weighting. The models for each outcome are additionally adjusted for first haemoglobin concentration in pregnancy (modelled linearly). IFAS=iron and folic acid supplementation. MMS=multiple micronutrient supplementation. SGA=small for gestational age.