TABLE 2.
The studies that have employed various natural compounds for inhibition and degradation of the Candida biofilm. Natural compounds that are the main ingredient of their-associated plants are reported here.
| Year of publication (Reference) | Natural compound | Source of natural compound | Candida species (other microorganisms) | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quatrin et al. (2017) | 1-8-Cineol | Eucalyptus globulus oil | C. tropicalis and C. glabrata (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) | Nanoemulsion containing eucalyptus globulus oil was more efficient in the destruction of biofilm when compared to free oil. |
| Alves et al. (2019) | Borneol | Thymus carnosus EO | C. albicans | Disrupted preformed biofilm. |
| Manoharan et al. (2017b) | Borneol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Reduced biofilm formation. |
| Alfaifi et al. (2020) | Caffeine | NR | C. albicans | Caffeine at 32.00 and 16.00 mg/ml remarkably reduced the metabolic activity of C. albicans biofilm. |
| Alves et al. (2019) | Camphene | Thymus carnosus EO | C. albicans | Disrupted preformed biofilm. |
| Ivanov et al. (2021) | Camphor | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. parapsilosis, C. albicans, C. glabrata and C. krusei | Reduced established biofilm and hyphal formation. |
| Manoharan et al. (2017b) | Camphor | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Significantly decreased biofilm community and hyphal formation. Additionally, downregulated some biofilm-related and hypha-specific genes. |
| Santos et al. (2017) | Camphor | NR | C. albicans | Diamond-like carbon films were incorporated with camphor, reducing the biofilm formation of 99% of C. albicans. |
| Yang et al. (2021) | Carnosol | NR | C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm formation and development. |
| Baygar et al. (2018) | Carvacrol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans (various bacterial strains) | Incorporation of carvacrol into the soft liner reduced C. albicans biofilm formation. |
| Pazarci et al. (2019) | Carvacrol | Mentha longifolia EO | C. albicans (various bacterial strains) | C. albicans was susceptible to EO |
| Chatrath et al. (2022) | Citral | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. tropicalis | Citral had various effects on biofilm-associated proteins. |
| Garcia et al. (2021) | Citral | Lemongrass EO and geranium EO | C. albicans | Chitosan microparticles loaded with EO showed an inhibitory effect against biofilm. |
| Gao et al. (2020) | Citral | Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) | C. albicans and C. tropicalis (S. aureus) | Decreased cell viability and biofilm biomass of each species in the biofilm. Furthermore, citral downregulated virulence factor and hyphal adhesins in C. albicans. |
| Chatrath et al. (2019) | Citral and Thymol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. tropicalis | These compounds indicated inhibitory effects against the planktonic and biofilm community. Citral and thymol targeted cell membrane and cell wall, respectively, and had an inhibitory effect on cell membrane biosynthesis and cell wall-related tolerance genes. |
| Sharma et al. (2020) | Citronellol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Inhibitory effect on the secretion of extracellular phospholipases and proteinases and biofilm formation. |
| Xu et al. (2019) | Coumarin | Purchased directly from Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. | C. albicans | Inhibited fungal adhesion and biofilm formation; additionally, destroyed preformed biofilm. |
| Behbehani et al. (2019) | Epigallocatechin gallate | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | Various Candida species | The minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) range of this compound was lower than fluconazole and ketoconazole. |
| Ning et al. (2015) | Epigallocatechin gallate | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, C. kefyr, C. glabrata, and C. albicans | A synergism effect was reported between this compound and fluconazole, miconazole, and AMB against the biofilm community of various Candida species. |
| Evensen and Braun (2009) | Epigallocatechin gallate | NR | C. albicans | Reduced 75% of viable cells during biofilm development. |
| Chauhan et al. (2011) | Ethyl alcohol | NR | C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm development and germ tube formation. |
| Mishra et al. (2021b) | Eucalyptol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans and C. glabrata | Eucalyptol/β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex to gellan/polyvinyl alcohol nanofibers suppressed 70% biofilm of fungi. |
| Gupta et al. (2021b) | Eucalyptol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans and C. glabrata | Showed antibiofilm activity against mature biofilm. |
| Müller-Sepúlveda et al. (2020) | Eucalyptol | Lavandula dentata L EO | C. albicans | Suppressed adhesion, morphogenesis, biofilm formation, altered microarchitecture, and reduced the viability of the established biofilm. |
| Manoharan et al. (2017b) | Fenchone | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Decreased biofilm formation. |
| Manoharan et al. (2017b) | Fenchyl alcohol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Reduced biofilm formation and hyphal formation. |
| Alves-Silva et al. (2016) | Geranyl acetate | Daucus carota subsp. carota | C. albicans | Decreased biofilm biomass and cell viability. |
| Thakre et al. (2018) | Limonene | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | This compound was more effective against adhesion followed by the development and maturation of biofilm; additionally, it showed synergy with fluconazole against biofilm growth. |
| Raut et al. (2013) | Linalool | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Suppressed yeast-to-hypha dimorphism and biofilm formation. |
| Kim et al. (2020) | Linoleic acid | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | Fluconazole-resistant C. albicans (S. aureus) | Inhibited biofilm formation, hyphal growth, and cell aggregation by C. albicans. Additionally, linoleic acid suppressed mixed S. aureus and C. albicans biofilms. |
| Barad et al. (2017) | linoleic acid | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | The Zinc oxide NPs coated with Chitosan-linoleic acid inhibited C. albicans biofilm formation even better than fluconazole. |
| Suchodolski et al. (2021) | Menthol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. krusei, C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. parapsilosis | Imidazolium ionic liquids based on (-)-menthol inhibited biofilm formation. |
| Saharkhiz et al. (2012) | Menthol | Mentha piperita L EO | C. dubliniensis and C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm development. |
| Raut et al. (2013) | Nerol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm formation. |
| Li et al. (2017) | Osthole (a natural coumarin) | Purchased directly from national Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, China | Fluconazole-resistant C. albicans | The results indicated synergism of osthole and fluconazole. |
| Ferreira et al. (2021) | P-coumaric acid | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans, C. glabrata and C. krusei | p-coumaric acid-loaded liquid crystalline systems exhibited higher elimination of established biofilms than AMB and fluconazole. |
| Liu et al. (2021) | Phloretin | Purchased directly from Aladdin | C. albicans | Suppressed biofilm formation and the yeast-to-hypha transition. |
| Priya et al. (2021a) | Piperine | Purchased directly from HiMedia | C. albicans | Treatment of Candida biofilm by thymol and piperine leads to the synergistic effect; additionally, it reduces Candida attachment and hyphal extension. |
| Thakre et al. (2021) | Piperine | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | Fluconazole-resistant C. albicans | Indicated good synergistic activity with fluconazole against the biofilm community. |
| Priya and Pandian (2020) | Piperine | Purchased directly from HiMedia | C. albicans | Suppressed biofilm and hyphal morphogenesis. |
| Shahzad et al. (2014) | Pyrogallol | NR | C. albicans | Indicated antibiofilm activity. |
| Chevalier et al. (2012) | Saponin | Solidago virgaurea | C. albicans | Yeast-to-hypha transition phase, biofilm formation, and established biofilms were strongly suppressed. |
| Sadowska et al. (2014) | Saponin | Medicago sativa and Saponaria officinalis | C. albicans | This compound inhibited hyphal growth, yeast attachment, germ tube formation, and biofilm formation. |
| Yang et al. (2018) | Saponin | Rhizomes of Dioscorea panthaica Prain et Burk | C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm formation, adhesion, yeast-to-hyphal transition phase, and phospholipase production. Additionally, this compound led to the production of endogenous ROS, consequently disrupting the cell membrane in planktonic cells. |
| Coleman et al. (2010) | Saponin | From various natural products | C. albicans | Disrupted hyphae and biofilm formation. |
| Lemos et al. (2020) | Scopoletin (a natural coumarin) | Mitracarpus frigidus | MDR C. tropicalis | Suppressed formation of elongated fungal forms, the growth rate of established biofilms, and biofilms formation on the surface of coverslips. |
| Morey et al. (2016) | Tannins | Stryphnodendron adstringens | C. tropicalis | Decreased biofilm biomass. |
| Manoharan et al. (2017a) | α-longipinene | NR | C. albicans | Inhibited biofilm formation and showed synergistic effect with linalool. |
| Zuzarte et al. (2021) | α-pinene and β–pinene | Bupleurum subsp. paniculatum (Brot.) H. Wolff EO | C. albicans (Cryptococcus neoformans and other dermatophytes) | Inhibited germ tube formation and eliminated mature biofilm. |
| Rivas Da Silva et al. (2012) | α-pinene and β–pinene | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans (various bacterial strains) | These compounds were highly toxic to C. albicans and prevented biofilm formation by this fungus. |
| Ramage et al. (2012) | α-terpineol | Purchased directly from Sigma-Aldrich | C. albicans | Showed rapid antibiofilm activity. |
| Alves-Silva et al. (219) | β–pinene | Santolina impressa | C. albicans (C. neoformans, Epidermophyton floccosum and Trichophytum rubrum) | Inhibited germ tube formation and eliminated mature biofilm. |
EO, essential oil; NPs, nanoparticles; ROS, reactive oxygen species; NR, not reported; AMB, amphotericin B; MDR, multidrug-resistant.