Table 1.

Overview of clinical studies on AUD and oxidative stress.

Topic of the Study	Aim of the Study	Number of Patients Included	Significant Findings, Safety, Disease Response, and Disease Control	Type of Study	Reference
Evaluation of oxidative stress biomarkers, liver, and renal function parameters in patients during AD treatment	To compare oxidative stress and renal and hepatic function parameters upon admission and discharge from the hospital	28	Chlorpromazine showed influence over hepatic function markers and oxidative stress parameters (i.e., CAT and GPX); carbamazepine influenced hepatic function and ferric reducing antioxidant power; SOD levels were lower, and GPX and ferric reducing antioxidant power presented higher levels at discharge	Prospective cohort study	[51]
Influence of heavy drinking on the onset of age-related diseases by measuring telomere length	To measure telomere length of Japanese patients with AD and search for an association between telomere length and genetic variants of ADH1B and ALDH2	255	Telomere length was almost 50% shorter in AD patients relative to the controls. There were no associations between ADH1B and ALDH2 genotypes and telomere length	Cohort study	[58]
The correlation between early alcohol withdrawal severity and oxidative stress in AD patients	To explore the correlation between alcohol withdrawal severity and two oxidative stress markers: MDA and SOD	95	Compared to the controls, serum MDA levels were significantly elevated, and SOD activity was significantly lowered in alcoholic patients; clinical withdrawal severity was significantly positively correlated with serum MDA levels	Cohort study	[55]
Increased oxidative DNA damage in AD patients and its correlation with alcohol withdrawal severity	To compare serum 8-OHdG levels between patients with AD and healthy controls and to investigate the correlation between this marker and the severity of alcohol withdrawal syndrome	142	The oxidative DNA damage persisted after 1 week of detoxification. The alcohol withdrawal syndrome severity was correlated with the increase in oxidative stress	Prospective cohort study	[59]
Comparison of oxidative DNA damage between AD patients with and without delirium tremens	To investigate levels of 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OhdG) as a marker of oxidative DNA damage in AD patients	74	AD patients with delirium tremens had higher serum 8-OhdG levels than those without delirium tremens, suggesting that higher oxidative stress carries a greater risk of the occurrence of delirium tremens	Prospective cohort study	[60]
BDNF and GPX as state biomarkers in AUD patients undergoing detoxification	To investigate the serum levels of BDNF and oxidative stress markers in AUD patients during alcohol detoxification	34	Serum levels of oxidative stress markers were significantly higher in the AUD group than in control group, while BDNF levels were lower; after alcohol detoxification treatment, the GPX levels in the AUD group dropped, and the BDNF levels rose	Cohort study	[61]
Telomere length in AD and its role in impulsive choice and childhood maltreatment	To examine whether delayed discounting and childhood trauma are related to leukocyte telomere length in AD patients, who are considered to have a higher impulsive choice and shorter telomere length	253	Patients with AD and high childhood trauma showed a significant relationship between delay discounting and leukocyte telomere length, while those with low trauma showed no association between them	Prospective study	[62]
Alterations in oxidative stress status during early alcohol withdrawal in alcoholic patients	To investigate serial alterations in various oxidative stress markers during early detoxification in alcoholic patients	140	Marked oxidative stress in alcoholic patients without severe liver disease was observed; the attenuation of a raised MDA level and lowering of CAT activity appeared after one week of detoxification; alcoholic patients did not scavenge free radicals as readily as controls	Prospective cohort study	[22]
Oxidative damage to plasma proteins in patients with chronic AD and the effect of smoking	To examine the oxidative status of plasma proteins as markers of oxidative stress in subjects with chronic AD with smoking as a cofounding factor	132	Systemic oxidative stress in chronic AD was attributed mainly to alcohol consumption, while smoking may act synergistically	Prospective cohort study	[56]
Relationship between liver function and brain shrinkage in AD patients	To assess the correlations between liver function and brain volume measurements in AD patients	235	The results showed that higher liver function levels correlated with brain volume shrinkage in AD patients but not in the controls. Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase levels outweighed the aging effect on brain shrinkage in female patients	Prospective cohort study	[63]
Oxidative status in AD patients	To examine the relationship between AD and oxidative status	47	Serum MDA levels of AD patients were found to be significantly increased compared with the controls and decreased after abstinence; serum CAT did not return to normal status at week 2 after abstinence; the activity of CAT was significantly correlated with MDA levels	Prospective cohort study	[54]
Oxidoreductive homeostasis in AD male patients and the risk of alcohol drinking relapse in a 6 month follow up	To verify the hypothesis that oxidoreductive blood balance can also affect demand for energy substances, such as alcoholic beverages, in AD individuals as well as the severity of their AD and risk of drinking relapse	77	The risk of alcohol drinking relapse was lower in patients with an above-median initial blood concentration of nitric oxide metabolites and total antioxidant status; the oxidative stress parameters correlated with AD severity markers	Prospective cohort study	[57]
Alcohol-responsive genes in the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of human alcoholics	To compare the RNA expression profile of the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex of the human brain from matched individual alcoholic and control cases	14	Downregulation of genes encoding essential proteins involved in vesicular transport and cellular architecture in nucleus accumbens of the alcoholic	Comparative postmortem study	[64]
MAO-A levels in brain regions in AD	To verify the hypothesis that the MAO-A level is elevated in the prefrontal cortex during AD as the cellular response to oxidative stress and mitochondrial toxicity	32	MAO-A was significantly greater in the prefrontal cortex and all brain regions analyzed in AD; an association between prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex MAO-A and the severity of depressed mood was observed	Cohort study	[65]
Investigation of antioxidant activity of human serum	To conduct a comparative investigation of the total antioxidant activity of human serum	30	All applied methods revealed that the serum total antioxidant activity of the AD patients was lower than the total antioxidant activity of the control group	Cohort study	[52]
Concentrations of manganese SOD in the serum of AD patients	The quantitative determination of the plasma concentrations of oxidative stress-associated parameters (concentrations of lactoferrin, Cu, Zn-SOD, and Mn-SOD) in AD and controls	35	Increased oxidative stress was observed in AD patients	Cohort study	[53]

Alcohol dependence (AD); catalase (CAT); glutathione peroxidase (GPX); superoxide dismutase (SOD); malondialdehyde (MDA); monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A).