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. 2022 Jul 13;11(7):1054. doi: 10.3390/biology11071054

Table A2.

Physiological and perceptual parameters across groups and environments. Effect sizes indicate between group comparisons.

Baseline Warm Immersion Cold Immersion Recovery Effect Size (d)
Base WI CI Rec
Gastrointestinal temperature (°C) Cool men 37.18 ± 0.17 37.24 ± 0.23 37.01 ± 0.32 36.94 ± 0.44 0.86 0.33 0.24 0.10
women 37.30 ± 0.10 37.30 ± 0.11 37.07 ± 0.17 36.90 ± 0.15
Neutral men 37.15 ± 0.25 37.16 ± 0.27 37.00 ± 0.32 36.83 ± 0.55 0.32 0.36 0.88 0.73
women 37.24 ± 0.28 37.28 ± 0.35 37.26 ± 0.27 37.17 ± 0.35
Hot men 37.03 ± 0.10 37.07 ± 0.16 37.14 ± 0.19 37.01 ± 0.26 1.40 1.01 0.76 0.19
women 37.25 ± 0.20 37.31 ± 0.27 37.28 ± 0.18 37.05 ± 0.07
Mean skin temperature (°C) Cool men 30.34 ± 0.86 30.06 ± 0.96 29.55 ± 0.91 29.42 ± 1.06 0.23 0.10 0.01 0.18
women 30.51 ± 0.61 30.15 ± 0.70 29.56 ± 0.82 29.59 ± 0.91
Neutral men 32.27 ± 0.68 32.20 ± 0.56 31.92 ± 0.53 31.84 ± 0.79 0.32 0.41 0.33 0.25
women 32.48 ± 0.64 32.43 ± 0.56 32.09 ± 0.53 32.00 ± 0.43
Hot men 34.80 ± 0.97 34.90 ± 1.03 35.05 ± 1.06 35.08 ± 1.29 0.43 0.54 0.53 0.68
women 35.13 ± 0.47 35.35 ± 0.52 35.47 ± 0.36 35.72 ± 0.31
Arm temperature (°C) Cool men 31.35 ± 1.01 31.09 ± 1.11 30.67 ± 1.08 30.29 ± 1.08 0.54 0.52 0.60 0.02
women 30.85 ± 0.85 30.60 ± 0.72 30.06 ± 0.87 30.30 ± 0.78
Neutral men 33.20 ± 0.77 33.31 ± 0.64 33.04 ± 0.72 33.10 ± 1.03 0.31 0.39 0.19 0.21
women 32.95 ± 0.85 33.04 ± 0.75 32.92 ± 0.54 32.93 ± 0.42
Hot men 35.58 ± 0.51 35.79 ± 0.51 35.97 ± 0.51 36.07 ± 0.50 0.33 0.33 0.53 0.44
women 35.38 ± 0.71 35.60 ± 0.67 35.71 ± 0.49 35.88 ± 0.30
Chest
temperature (°C) 		Cool men 30.67 ± 1.27 30.57 ± 1.38 30.23 ± 1.47 30.72 ± 1.82 1.49 1.26 1.32 1.12
women 32.30 ± 0.88 32.11 ± 1.04 31.89 ± 1.01 32.32 ± 0.90
Neutral men 32.49 ± 0.74 0.009 32.48 ± 0.6 0.006 32.37 ± 0.56 32.50 ± 0.81 1.62 2.11 1.71 1.37
women 33.60 ± 0.64 33.73 ± 0.58 33.44 ± 0.68 33.54 ± 0.70
Hot men 34.39 ± 2.05 34.36 ± 2.10 34.44 ± 2.25 34.29 ± 3.00 0.78 0.84 0.80 0.90
women 35.56 ± 0.47 35.64 ± 0.45 35.73 ± 0.37 36.22 ± 0.36
Leg temperature (°C) Cool men 29.17 ± 1.07 28.59 ± 1.09 27.79 ± 1.20 27.10 ± 1.35 0.40 0.34 0.48 0.65
women 28.71 ± 1.62 28.13 ± 1.58 27.02 ± 1.95 25.92 ± 2.20
Neutral men 31.20 ± 0.88 30.91 ± 0.83 30.28 ± 0.75 29.62 ± 0.73 0.24 0.28 0.42 0.47
women 30.99 ± 0.81 30.67 ± 0.89 29.93 ± 0.95 29.23 ± 0.90
Hot men 34.43 ± 0.53 34.52 ± 0.68 34069 ± 0.63 34.87 ± 0.40 0.16 0.35 0.30 0.36
women 34.36 ± 0.39 34.73 ± 0.55 34.84 ± 0.35 34.75 ± 0.24
Thigh temperature (°C) Cool men 29.47 ± 1.03 29.21 ± 1.16 28.63 ± 1.19 28.47 ± 1.45 0.33 0.59 0.65 0.31
women 29.10 ± 1.25 28.52 ± 1.19 27.86 ± 1.17 28.10 ± 0.88
Neutral men 31.61 ± 0.72 31.43 ± 0.62 31.20 ± 0.70 31.19 ± 0.83 0.01 0.11 0.31 0.15
women 31.60 ± 0.75 31.35 ± 0.72 30.98 ± 0.73 31.06 ± 0.75
Hot men 34.63 ± 1.25 34.76 ± 1.23 34.90 ± 1.42 34.98 ± 1.83 0.27 0.41 0.41 0.54
women 34.89 ± 0.47 35.16 ± 0.58 35.34 ± 0.53 35.70 ± 0.50
1st toe immersed leg (°C) Cool men 21.48 ± 1.39 31.51 ± 2.48 10.10 ± 0.60 11.63 ± 0.87 0.02 0.40 0.49 0.59
women 21.44 ± 2.27 30.34 ± 3.38 10.48 ± 0.93 12.73 ± 2.47
Neutral men 26.30 ± 3.24 33.08 ± 1.02 10.80 ± 1.17 13.92 ± 2.09 0.42 0.42 0.51 0.20
women 28.05 ± 4.83 33.76 ± 2.05 10.32 ± 0.62 14.33 ± 1.93
Hot men 34.40 ± 0.83 35.47 ± 0.77 13.03 ± 2.59 23.10 ± 5.26 0.89 0.61 0.39 0.69
women 35.01 ± 0.55 35.96 ± 0.86 12.19 ± 1.59 20.24 ± 2.65
3rd toe immersed leg (°C) Cool men 19.55 ± 1.55 32.17 ± 2.42 9.91 ± 0.79 12.05 ± 0.83 0.45 0.56 0.21 0.27
women 20.46 ± 2.338 30.57 ± 3.24 10.10 ± 1.05 12.46 ± 1.92
Neutral men 25.15 ± 3.22 32.74 ± 1.11 10.62 ± 1.05 13.54 ± 1.35 0.41 0.93 0.59 0.68
women 26.90 ± 5.07 33.87 ± 1.33 9.93 ± 1.30 14.81 ± 2.29
Hot men 34.43 ± 0.97 35.22 ± 0.56 12.40 ± 1.08 23.05 ± 4.78 0.34 0.38 0.67 0.34
women 34.72 ± 0.74 35.47 ± 0.73 11.29 ± 2.05 21.43 ± 4.66
5th toe immersed leg (°C) Cool men 20.10 ± 1.71 31.66 ± 1.72 10.97 ± 1.88 12.19 ± 1.21 0.62 0.53 0.10 0.49
women 21.74 ± 3.32 30.13 ± 3.69 10.81 ± 1.22 13.23 ± 2.79
Neutral men 25.54 ± 3.15 32.02 ± 1.23 10.91 ± 0.73 13.30 ± 1.81 0.41 1.38 0.57 0.95
women 27.21 ± 4.76 33.68 ± 1.18 10.39 ± 1.07 15.40 ± 2.56
Hot men 34.02 ± 1.25 35.06 ± 1.44 13.28 ± 2.24 21.87 ± 5.01 0.49 0.39 0.01 0.31
women 34.58 ± 1.00 35.54 ± 1.00 13.24 ± 4.26 20.46 ± 4.12
1st toe non immersed leg (°C) Cool men 21.82 ± 1.46 21.10 ± 1.06 18.31 ± 0.92 16.93 ± 0.91 0.03 0.17 0.13 0.20
women 21.89 ± 2.33 21.38 ± 2.14 18.47 ± 1.38 17.12 ± 0.99
Neutral men 26.45 ± 3.85 26.67 ± 3.74 24.34 ± 2.97 24.33 ± 3.81 0.34 0.16 0.34 0.81
women 27.79 ± 4.00 27.24 ± 3.59 23.52 ± 1.70 22.09 ± 0.89
Hot men 34.44 ± 0.91 34.80 ± 0.62 34.08 ± 0.94 34.48 ± 0.47 0.88 0.85 0.27 1.17
women 35.10 ± 0.55 35.30 ± 0.56 34.32 ± 0.77 33.03 ± 1.69
2nd finger immersed hand (°C) Cool men 20.77 ± 4.30 30.74 ± 2.38 11.00 ± 1.18 14.25 ± 2.96 0.13 0.55 0.03 0.14
women 21.35 ± 4.80 29.27 ± 3.00 11.04 ± 0.98 14.64 ± 2.48
Neutral men 29.37 ± 3.48 33.99 ± 1.24 11.87 ± 1.48 18.15 ± 5.32 0.70 0.36 0.45 0.25
women 31.49 ± 2.43 34.51 ± 1.64 11.18 ± 1.59 17.13 ± 2.19
Hot men 35.46 ± 0.59 35.17 ± 0.44 13.02 ± 2.46 28.50 ± 4.83 1.16 1.95 0.69 0.02
women 36.01 ± 0.40 36.01 ± 0.43 14.80 ± 2.68 28.41 ± 3.21
2nd finger immersed hand (°C) Cool men 21.04 ± 3.99 19.73 ± 4.02 17.36 ± 1.41 16.52 ± 0.53 0.12 0.24 0.15 0.07
women 20.54 ± 4.19 18.81 ± 3.50 17.13 ± 1.59 16.57 ± 0.72
Neutral men 28.65 ± 3.17 27.85 ± 2.89 24.84 ± 2.09 24.07 ± 2.34 1.07 0.62 0.18 0.69
women 31.32 ± 1.58 29.64 ± 2.92 25.25 ± 2.30 22.92 ± 0.30
Hot men 35.50 ± 0.59 35.51 ± 0.51 35.21 ± 0.59 35.39 ± 0.17 0.05 0.18 0.40 1.35
women 35.53 ± 0.57 35.39 ± 0.74 34.93 ± 0.79 34.58 ± 0.83
SkBF 1st toe immersed leg (PU) Cool men 8.47 ± 5.29 39.54 ± 31.54 20.88 ± 11.09 38.74 ± 7.97 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.53
women 17.76 ± 29.25 28.59 ± 19.62 28.05 ± 22.40 56.91 ± 47.73
Neutral men 52.14 ± 47.67 79.53 ± 28.06 20.68 ± 13.98 33.26 ± 15.27 0.37 0.43 0.71 0.90
women 80.81 ± 98.23 102.68 ± 70.38 42.56 ± 41.34 60.48 ± 39.83
Hot men 262.48 ± 72.15 282.51 ± 67.05 82.22 ± 45.71 157.16 ± 108.53 0.12 0.92 0.01 0.29
women 253.28 ± 78.81 210.34 ± 88.42 81.59 ± 57.26 131.52 ± 63.37
SkBF 1st toe non immersed leg (PU) Cool men 11.81 ± 5.15 14.02 ± 10.42 14.84 ± 8.88 12.50 ± 2.42 0.52 0.52 0.43 0.25
women 28.11 ± 44.44 50.32 ± 98.45 21.51 ± 20.34 11.29 ± 6.38
Neutral men 63.75 ± 43.87 48.65 ± 38.23 28.82 ± 26.19 38.20 ± 33.55 0.03 0.07 0.50 1.08
women 62.39 ± 56.62 45.74 ± 43.06 18.504.03 12.44 ± 1.33
Hot men 221.14 ± 75.13 233.12 ± 62.66 193.68 ± 63.98 210.73 ± 58.43 0.18 0.39 0.33 3.15
women 203.14 ± 120.04 197.30 ± 112.78 160.92 ± 123.61 67.76 ± 26.62
SkBF 2nd finger immersed hand (PU) Cool men 89.75 ± 121.99 105.82 ± 110.72 103.67 ± 64.71 108.13 ± 13.86 0.14 0.13 0.27 0.33
women 72.60 ± 116.16 91.30 ± 116.72 85.49 ± 71.23 139.03 ± 82.32
Neutral men 224.96 ± 126.19 202.69 ± 118.12 100.06 ± 62.93 178.11 ± 94.11 0.63 0.70 0.63 0.06
women 293.38 ± 87.65 275.99 ± 89.71 137.65 ± 56.96 173.18 ± 83.76
Hot men 329.08 ± 75.45 301.39 ± 91.38 151.01 ± 66.33 290.01 ± 101.76 1.04 0.50 0.75 0.86
women 392.06 ± 39.75 339.34 ± 56.45 199.13 ± 62.69 354.43 ± 28.27
SkBF 2nd finger non immersed hand (PU) Cool men 46.71 ± 54.65 40.38 ± 63.60 19.44 ± 8.97 15.34 ± 7.40 0.21 0.10 0.23 0.22
women 59.57 ± 69.78 34.40 ± 50.08 2.75 ± 18.24 17.48 ± 11.46
Neutral men 148.45 ± 73.52 95.70 ± 54.05 44.06 ± 24.55 42.13 ± 21.85 0.76 0.55 0.24 0.63
women 205 ± 0.37 ± 76.72 137.69 ± 94.24 54.56 ± 56.13 28.05 ± 22.58
Hot men 248.85 ± 78.47 253.97 ± 75.61 209.77 ± 68.63 246.72 ± 31.68 0.02 0.29 0.22 0.38
women 247.17 ± 56.27 233.98 ± 61.27 210.44 ± 47.45 224.17 ± 76.81
Sweat rate forehead (mg/cm2/min) Cool men 1.20 ± 0.36 1.42 ± 0.30 1.51 ± 0.40 1.31 ± 0.61 0.27 0.28 0.11 0.57
women 1.07 ± 0.58 1.28 ± 0.64 1.45 ± 0.76 1.74 ± 0.89
Neutral men 0.93 ± 0.19 1.14 ± 0.25 1.23 ± 0.35 1.01 ± 0.36 0.66 0.76 0.84 2.47
women 1.75 ± 1.74 2.00 ± 1.56 2.15 ± 1.50 3.00 ± 1.08
Hot men 1.39 ± 0.71 1.57 ± 0.85 1.67 ± 0.82 1.64 ± 1.03 0.13 0.30 0.41 0.59
women 1.49 ± 0.83 1.84 ± 0.91 2.03 ± 0.89 2.28 ± 1.13
Sweat rate leg (mg/cm2/min) Cool men 0.56 ± 0.38 0.61 ± 0.48 0.74 ± 0.46 0.78 ± 0.57 0.58 0.23 0.06 0.02
women 0.80 ± 0.44 0.70 ± 0.28 0.76 ± 0.30 0.77 ± 0.33
Neutral men 0.75 ± 0.33 0.90 ± 0.47 0.89 ± 0.50 0.85 ± 0.66 0.66 0.23 0.56 0.26
women 1.04 ± 1.30 0.76 ± 0.79 0.64 ± 0.55 0.71 ± 0.38
Hot men 1.34 ± 0.29 1.40 ± 0.42 1.55 ± 0.71 1.64 ± 0.95 0.15 0.30 0.02 0.91
women 1.26 ± 0.71 1.53 ± 1.08 1.20 ± 0.54 0.99 ± 0.36
Heart rate
(beats/min) 		Cool men 64.89 ± 4.62 64.31 ± 3.57 71.17 ± 6.33 68.46 ± 9.52 1.43 1.05 0.90 1.29
women 75.68 ± 9.60 71.78 ± 9.45 77.76 ± 8.21 80.90 ± 9.74
Neutral men 65.46 ± 2.87 65.11 ± 3.04 68.63 ± 4.08 64.07 ± 5.26 1.81 1.55 0.73 0.58
women 78.68 ± 9.90 76.15 ± 9.57 73.11 ± 7.61 68.98 ± 10.76
Hot men 72.48 ± 9.43 72.34 ± 7.84 72.53 ± 6.41 68.02 ± 4.22 0.87 0.94 0.62 0.66
women 81.20 ± 10.48 81.52 ± 11.44 78.75 ± 12.63 75.38 ± 15.12
Systolic blood
pressure (mmHg) 		Cool men 108.48 ± 8.17 109.71 ± 5.96 122.20 ± 7.48 127.00 ± 11.75 0.17 0.07 0.84 0.10
women 110.17 ± 11.35 109.14 ± 9.04 131.95 ± 14.60 125.50 ± 18.86
Neutral men 106.45 ± 6.07 107.67 ± 11.34 126.31 ± 13.98 121.00 ± 8.25 0.44 0.70 0.42 0.73
women 103.17 ± 8.49 100.83 ± 7.88 121.17 ± 10.45 113.75 ± 11.27
Hot men 102.83 ± 10.64 104.17 ± 8.73 111.03 ± 12.26 102.75 ± 12.50 0.05 0.25 0.46 0.22
women 102.39 ± 7.16 101.50 ± 12.37 106.40 ± 7.34 105.00 ± 7.16
Diastolic blood
Pressure (mmHg) 		Cool men 71.86 ± 8.58 71.43 ± 4.83 <0.001 86.52 ± 7.71 86.75 ± 12.50 0.66 0.94 1.08 0.28
women 77.17 ± 7.59 75.86 ± 4.63 95.38 ± 8.64 92.50 ± 26.06
Neutral men 70.06 ± 8.16 68.33 ± 10.67 86.78 ± 9.83 78.28 ± 10.37 0.42 0.44 0.11 0.18
women 73.00 ± 5.56 72.33 ± 7.09 87.75 ± 6.96 80.00 ± 9.20
Hot men 67.78 ± 9.22 66.00 ± 7.80 74.88 ± 10.11 67.25 ± 10.69 0.67 0.47 0.36 0.99
women 72.83 ± 5.23 69.00 ± 4.60 77.53 ± 2.91 78.25 ± 11.41
Pain index
hand (Likert) 		Cool men 7.09 ± 1.89 0.09
women 7.32 ± 2.99
Neutral men 6.86 ± 2.16 0.15
women 6.45 ± 3.32
Hot men 5.35 ± 1.96 0.59
women 3.98 ± 2.62
Pain index foot (Likert) Cool men 7.58 ± 1.05 0.19
women 7.15 ± 3.02
Neutral men 6.97 ± 1.98 0.21
women 6.38 ± 3.31
Hot men 5.37 ± 1.91 0.47
women 4.31 ± 2.62
Pain index hand (VAS) Cool men 6.84 ± 2.04 0.01
women 6.81 ± 3.05
Neutral men 6.46 ± 2.33 0.07
women 6.27 ± 306
Hot men 5.08 ± 2.21 0.34
women 4.25 ± 2.65
Pain index foot (VAS) Cool men 7.10 ± 1.25 0.20
women 6.63 ± 3.04
Neutral men 6.54 ± 1.91 0.08
women 6.32 ± 3.15
Hot men 4.90 ± 1.78 0.24
women 4.38 ± 2.53
Distress index hand (Likert) Cool men 7.20 ± 1.89 0.06
women 7.37 ± 3.48
Neutral men 6.83 ± 2.44 0.03
women 6.93 ± 3.61
Hot men 5.51 ± 1.95 0.52
women 4.23 ± 2.88
Distress index
foot (Likert) 		Cool men 7.54 ± 0.95 0.11
women 7.26 ± 3.46
Neutral men 6.66 ± 1.86 0.09
women 6.91 ± 3.62
Hot men 5.15 ± 2.04 0.26
women 4.51 ± 2.77
Tactile sensitivity hand (monofil.) Cool men 0.62 ± 0.94 0.35 ± 0.73 26.14 ± 60.70 0.55 0.17 0.26
women 1.42 ± 1.80 0.25 ± 0.25 51.55 ± 122.21
Neutral men 0.07 ± 0.00 0.13 ± 0.13 29.34 ± 59.73 0.69 0.47 0.67
women 0.45 ± 0.77 0.39 ± 0.79 1.04 ± 0.87
Hot men 0.39 ± 0.79 0.07 ± 0.00 25.56 ± 60.99 0.36 0.58 0.50
women 0.71 ± 1.00 0.39 ± 0.79 3.64 ± 7.41
Tactile sensitivity
foot (monofil.) 		Cool men 0.72 ± 0.89 1.72 ± 0.73 77.01 ± 124.08 0.66 0.01 0.01
women 1.51 ± 1.43 1.73 ± 1.35 76.25 ± 124.78
Neutral men 0.82 ± 0.92 1.15 ± 0.94 76.19 ± 124.66 0.00 0.22 0.20
women 0.82 ± 0.92 1.42 ± 1.55 51.73 ± 121.63
Hot men 1.41 ± 0.92 0.88 ± 0.88 1.63 ± 0.48 0.91 0.51 0.58
women 100.52 ± 154.52 1.36 ± 1.00 51.38 ± 121.80
Tactile sensitivity hand (esthesiometer) Cool men 2.57 ± 0.74 3.46 ± 0.92 4.37 ± 1.96 0.37 0.40 0.74
women 3.01 ± 1.52 2.99 ± 1.41 2.97 ± 1.83
Neutral men 3.11 ± 1.27 3.32 ± 1.11 3.76 ± 1.55 0.10 0.49 0.47
women 2.99 ± 1.08 2.68 ± 1.44 2.94 ± 1.93
Hot men 2.80 ± 0.74 2.46 ± 0.81 3.02 ± 0.55 0.63 0.19 0.12
women 2.17 ± 1.20 2.26 ± 1.25 2.92 ± 1.08
Tactile sensitivity Foot (esthesiometer) Cool men 8.28 ± 2.52 6.82 ± 2.08 7.75 ± 2.31 0.005 0.70 0.29 0.80
women 6.32 ± 3.08 6.15 ± 2.51 6.03 ± 2.00
Neutral men 5.59 ± 1.05 5.02 ± 2.56 4.93 ± 2.39 0.63 0.15 0.53
women 6.97 ± 2.91 5.43 ± 2.91 6.58 ± 365
Hot men 7.30 ± 1.39 6.40 ± 2.05 6.13 ± 2.41 0.36 0.56 0.01
women 6.43 ± 3.18 4.86 ± 3.31 6.15 ± 2.86
Thermal comfort Cool men 2.31 ± 0.94 2.36 ± 1.11 2.97 ± 0.96 2.13 ± 0.63 0.29 0.06 0.13 0.93
women 2.05 ± 0.84 2.29 ± 1.25 3.13 ± 1.45 3.38 ± 1.80
Neutral men 1.33 ± 0.30 1.33 ± 0.61 1.47 ± 0.43 1.88 ± 1.11 0.18 0.32 0.63 0.49
women 1.25 ± 0.61 1.17 ± 0.41 1.88 ± 0.82 2.38 ± 0.95
Hot men 1.72 ± 0.49 2.00 ± 0.89 1.58 ± 0.57 1.38 ± 0.25 0.10 0.16 0.64 0.00
women 1.78 ± 0.64 2.00 ± 0.89 1.29 ± 0.29 1.38 ± 0.25
Thermal sensation Cool men 1.81 ± 0.74 1.43 ± 0.98 1.84 ± 0.57 1.50 ± 1.91 0.17 0.42 0.98 0.65
women 1.67 ± 0.90 1.86 ± 1.07 2.50 ± 0.78 2.50 ± 1.00
Neutral men 0.56 ± 0.46 0.17 ± 0.98 0.19 ± 0.38 1.00 ± 1.15 0.82 0.16 0.80 0.62
women 0.22 ± 0.35 0.00 ± 1.10 0.67 ± 0.75 1.75 ± 1.26
Hot men 1.72 ± 0.49 1.67 ± 0.82 1.01 ± 0.74 1.50 ± 0.58 0.14 0.58 0.44 0.26
women 1.78 ± 0.27 0.00 ± 1.10 1.40 ± 1.00 1.25 ± 1.26
Key: Superscript numbers indicate p values for statistically significant differences at p < 0.008 from paired-samples t tests with a Bonferroni correction.
Note: Base = baseline; WI = warm-water immersion; CI = cold-water immersion; Rec = recovery; SkBF = skin blood flow; VAS = visual analogue scale.
Effect size (d) interpretation: very small
0.010.19		 small
0.20.49		 medium
0.50.79		 large
0.81.19		 very large
1.21.99		 huge
≥2.0
higher values in men
lower values in men