Table 4.

Murine models and clinical trials on the use of probiotics in CVD.

Study Model	Treatment	Effect	Ref.
ApoE−/− mice fed with high-fat diet	Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356	Prevention of atherosclerosis development	[258]
ApoE−/− mice fed with high-fat diet	Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium infantis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and Streptococcus thermophilus	Reduction in atherosclerotic plaques and vascular inflammation	[259]
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in obese postmenopausal women	Bifidobacterium bifidum W23, Bifidobacterium lactis W51, Bifidobacterium lactis W52, Lactobacillus acidophilus W37, Levilactobacillus brevis W63, Lacticaseibacillus casei W56, Ligilactobacillus salivarius W24, Lactococcus lactis W19, and Lactococcus lactis W58	Decreased BP, VEGF, IL-6, TNFα, and thrombomodulin	[260]
Randomized, controlled clinical trial in subjects with metabolic syndrome	Lacticaseibacillus casei Shirota	No improvement found	[261]
Clinical trial in men with CAD	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299v	Improvement in vascular function; decrease in I-8, IL-12, and leptin; increase in propionate	[262]
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in CAD patients	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299v	Decrease in BP, leptin, IL-6, and fibrinogen levels	[263]
Rats with coronary artery occlusion	Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GR-1	Attenuation of left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure	[264]
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with heart failure	Saccharomyces boulardii	Improvement in cardiovascular function; reduction in inflammatory markers	[265]