Table 2.
Health benefits of natural PDNVs.
| Origin | Isolation | Contents Identified | Size 1 (Measurement Method) | Health Effects | Model | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aloe vera | U/C and tangential flow filtration | - | 50–200 | Anti-oxidative effects | Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) | [71] |
| Apple | - | - | Intestinal function | Human colon epithelial cell line (Caco-2) | [18] | |
| U/C | - | 152 ± 32.3 (tRPS) | Anti-inflammation | Monocyte cell line (THP-1), fibroblast cell line (NCTC L929) | [19] | |
| Blueberry | U/C | Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside | 198 ± 112 (DLS) | Anti-inflammation | Human endothelial cell line (EA.hy926) | [20] |
| Filtration (1 µm), incubation with 8% PEG8000 and 10,000× g centrifugation | Protein, RNA, lipid | 189.62 (DLS) | Anti-oxidative effects | Human hepatocarcinoma cell line (HepG2), HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice | [21] | |
| Bitter melon | Electrophoresis and dialysis | Protein, RNA, microRNAs | 100–300 (NTA) | Anti-inflammation, anti-cancer and synergism with 5-FU | Human oral squamous cell carcinoma cell line (CAL 27, WSU-HN6) | [72] |
| Broccoli | U/C | Sulforaphane | 32.4 (DLS) | Protection against DSS-induced colitis | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | [50] |
| Butterbur (Petasites japonicus) | U/C | - | 122.6 (DLS) | Immunomodulation | Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC) | [73] |
| Cabbage, red cabbage | SEC, U/F | - | ~100 (TEM) | Anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis | HaCaT, human dermal fibroblasts (HDF), mouse macrophage cell line (RAW264.7) | [45] |
| Carrot | U/F and SEC | - | 143.9 (NTA) | Anti-oxidative effects | Embryonic rat heart-derived cardiomyoblasts (H9C2), neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) | [30] |
| Corn | U/C | - | 80 (DLS) | Anti-cancer (colon cancer) | Mouse colon cancer cell line (Colon26), xenograft model | [28] |
| Garlic | U/C | Proteins | <150 (TEM) | Anti-inflammation | HepG2 | [31] |
| Aqueous two-phase systems | Proteins | 50–150 (NTA) | Anti-cancer | Human kidney carcinoma (A498), human lung carcinoma (A549), HDF | [32] | |
| U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Lipids, proteins, miRNAs | ~200 (NTA) | Anti-obesity | Primary neuronal cell culture, wildtype C57BL/6, IDO1−/− and AHR−/− male mice with diet-induced obesity | [33] | |
| Garlic chive | U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Lipids, proteins, and RNAs | 113–153 (NTA) | Anti-inflammation | Acute liver injury model by administration of D-galactosamine and LPS, C57BL/6 with dietinduced obesity | [15] |
| Ginger | U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol, miRNAs | ~230 (DLS) | Protection against DSS-induced colitis | RAW 264.7, Caco-2BBE, Colon-26, DSS-induced colitis in FVB/NJ mice, IL10−/− C57BL/6 mice | [34] |
| sucrose gradient centrifugation | Lipids, shogaols | 386.6 (DLS) | Protection against alcohol-induced liver damage | Wildtype, MyD88 KO, TRIF KO, and TLR4 KO C57BL/6J | [35] | |
| polyethylene glycol-based method | SARS-CoV-2 targeting miRNAs | - | Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 | in silico analysis predicting SARS-CoV-2 targeting miRNAs | [74] | |
| U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | miRNA | ~180 (DLS) | Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 | A549 cells; C57BL/6 mice intratracheally injected with exosomesNsp12Nsp13 | [55] | |
| U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Phosphatidic acid, miRNAs | ~200 (NTA) | Treatment of periodontitis | periodontitis mouse model, Porphyromonas gingivalis | [36] | |
| U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | miRNAs, lipids | 206.8 (NTA) | Modulation of gut bacteria | C57BL/6 mice, human subjects | [37] | |
| U/C | RNAs, protein, lipids | 132 (NTA) | Anti-inflammation | Primary BMDMs | [38] | |
| Centrifugation (10,000× g, 1 h) and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Proteins, lipids | 250 ± 72 (NTA) | Anti-obesity | Murine colon adenocarcinoma cell line (MC-38) and Caco-2 cells, C57BL/6 mice | [39] | |
| Centrifugation (10,000× g, 1 h) and sucrose gradient centrifugation | - | - | Prevention of insulin resistance caused by obesity | C57BL/6 male mice with diet-induced obesity | [40] | |
| Commercial exosome isolation kits | miRNAs | 156 ± 36 (DLS) | Anti-inflammation | Caco-2 cells | [41] | |
| Ginseng | U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Amino acids, nucleotides, lipids/fatty acids, organic acids | 344.8 (DLS) | Inhibition of melanoma growth and M2-like polarization of macrophage | Murine melanoma cell line (B16F10) xenograft in C57BL/6 mice, BMDMs | [42] |
| U/C | Lipids | 92.04 ± 4.85 (DLS) | Anti-senescence and anti-pigmentation | Neonatal human epidermal keratinocytes (HEK), HDF cells, human epidermal melanocytes (HEM) | [43] | |
| U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | - | - | Improvement of PD-1 mAb therapy in cancers | B16F10 cells, mice bearing CT26 tumor, mouse breast cancer cell line (4T1) | [75] | |
| Grape | sucrose gradient centrifugation | - | 91.28–712.4 (DLS) | Potential induction of Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | [76] |
| sucrose gradient centrifugation | Protein, lipid, miRNA | 380.5 ± 37.47 (DLS) | Protection against DSS-induced colitis and modulation of intestinal tissue renewal | C57BL/6 mice, Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 mice, ex vivo crypt culture, CT26 cells | [62] | |
| Grapefruit | Polyethylene glycol-based method | SARS-CoV-2 targeting miRNAs | - | Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 | in silico analysis predicting SARS-CoV-2 targeting miRNAs | [74] |
| U/C | Organic acids, amino acids, others | - | Anti-cancer | Human Melanoma Cell Line (A375) | [25] | |
| aqueous two-phase systems | Proteins | ~82–~239(NTA) | Wound healing | HaCaT, human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC) | [26] | |
| Lemon | U/C | Proteins | 50–70 (EM) | Anti-cancer | A549, human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (SW480), human CML cell line (LAMA84), CML xenograft model | [24] |
| U/C | Citrate, vitamin C, short RNAs | 30–100 (TEM) | Anti-oxidant activity and type I collogen synthesis | Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) | [52] | |
| citraVes™ | Sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose), organic acids (isocitric, malic acid), flavonoids (eriocitrin, hesperidin) | 40–100 (DLS) | Reduction of waist-circumference and LDL level | Healthy volunteers | [3] | |
| U/C or electrophoresis and dialysis | - | ~100 (NTA) | Anticancer | gastric cancer cell lines (AGS, BGC-823, SGC-7901 cells), xenograft mice model |
[66] | |
| Sucrose gradient centrifugation | - | - | Improvement of probiotic function | Clostridioides difficile-infected mice | [77] | |
| Sucrose gradient centrifugation | Polysaccharides | ~180.5 (DLS) | Improvement of probiotic function | C57BL/6 mice, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG culture | [53] | |
| U/C | Citrate | ~100 (NTA) | Anti-cancer | Human colorectal cancer cell lines (HCT116 wildtype, HCT116 p53−/−, HCT-15, SW480 cells) | [78] | |
| Mulberry bark | U/C | Protein, lipid, RNAs | 151.3 ± 45.4 (NTA) | Protection against DSS-induced colitis | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice, gut epithelium-specific knockout mice of COPS8 | [63] |
| Nut | U/C | Lipids, miRNAs | 100–500 (DLS) | Anti-inflammation | 3T3 adipocytes, in vivo adipose tissue | [27] |
| Oat | U/C and Optiprep gradient purification | Proteins, lipids, polysaccharides | ~135 (NTA) | Anti-inflammation | C57BL/6 mice with 5% ethanol liquid diet to induce alcohol induced brain inflammation | [29] |
| Orange | U/C, SEC | Lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, alcohol | 60–140 (NTA) | Treatment of obesity-associated intestinal complications | In vitro intestinal barrier model (Caco-2+HT-29-MTX), HFHSD mice |
[22] |
| U/F and U/C | - | ~62, ~247 (DLS) | Anti-inflammation | Caco-2 | [23] | |
| Sap from plants | Filtration and centrifugation | - | 50–200 (NTA) | Anti-cancer | Human squamous carcinoma cells (A431), human breast carcinoma cells (MCF7), human breast carcinoma cells (MDA-MB-231), murine melanoma cells (B16BL6, B16F1) | [79] |
| Shiitake mushroom 2 | U/C | RNA, proteins, lipids | ~115 (NTA) | Anti-inflammation and protection against acute liver injury | Primary BMDMs, C57BL/6 J mice | [80] |
| Strawberry | U/C | Vitamin C | 30–191 (TEM) | Anti-oxidative effects | Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) | [16] |
| Tartary buckwheat | U/C | miRNA, proteins | 141.8 (NTA) | Modulation of gut bacteria | Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus rhamnosus culture, human fecal sample | [81] |
| Tea flowers | U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | EGCG, epicatechin gallate, epicatechin, vitexin, myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-O-galactoside, myricetin, proteins, lipids | 131 (DLS) | Anti-cancer | MCF-7, 4T1, A549, Human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) | [65] |
| Turmeric | U/C and sucrose gradient centrifugation | Lipids, proteins, curcumin | 177.9 (DLS) | Protection against DSS-induced colitis | Colon-26, Caco-2BBE, RAW 264.7 cells, DSS-induced colitis in FVB/NJ female mice, NFκB-RE-Luc transgenic female mice | [44] |
| Wheat grass | Commercial exosome isolation kits | - | 40–100 (DLS) | Regeneration | HDF, HUVEC, HaCaT cells | [82] |
1 Size is expressed as either a range or an average. 2 A mushroom is not a plant but due to its nutritional similarity with vegetables, the shiitake mushroom was included in this review.