Table 1.

Types and causes of [3].

Primary IR

Secondary IR

IR due to inappropriate lifestyle and diet (“hyper-FFA-emia”) Congenital forms of IR: Leprechaunism, Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome, type A IR syndrome, some lipodystrophies

Obesity Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) States of excess counterregulatory hormones for insulin: stress, infections, pregnancy, Cushing’s syndrome, pheochromocytoma, acromegaly, glucagonoma Other endocrinopathies: prolactinoma, hypopituitarism, hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, primary hyperparathyroidism, primary hyperaldosteronism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, hypogonadism (including Klinefelter syndrome and Turner syndrome) Drug-induced IR: glucocorticosteroids, antiretroviral drugs, oral contraceptives IR of immune etiology: anti-insulin antibodies, antibodies against insulin receptors in type B IR syndrome Miscellaneous: starvation, ketoacidosis, uremia, liver cirrhosis