Table 3.
Longitudinal associations between parental feeding practices and weight status of children, stratified by child age, child sex, and maternal and paternal educations—the Childhood Obesity Study in China Mega-Cities.
| BMI z-Score (Beta, 95% CI) a | Waist-to-Height Ratio (Beta, 95% CI) a | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ≤12 years (n = 1449) | >12 years (n = 692) | ≤12 years (n = 1449) | >12 years (n = 692) | |
| Among all | ||||
| Concern | 0.13 (0.09, 0.17) *** | 0.11 (0.07, 0.16) *** | 0.01 (0.005, 0.01) *** | 0.01 (0.004, 0.01) *** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.08 (−0.12, −0.04) *** | −0.04 (−0.09, 0.01) | −0.004 (−0.01, −0.001) ** | −0.002 (−0.005, 0.001) |
| Control | 0.01 (−0.03, 0.05) | 0.03 (−0.02, 0.09) | 0.001 (−0.002, 0.003) | 0.002 (−0.001, 0.006) |
| Among boys | ||||
| Concern | 0.16 (0.10, 0.23) *** | 0.15 (0.08, 0.23) *** | 0.01 (0.01, 0.02) *** | 0.01 (0.005, 0.01) *** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.08 (−0.14, −0.02) * | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.07) | −0.003 (−0.01, 0.001) | −0.0002 (−0.01, 0.005) |
| Control | 0.04 (−0.02, 0.10) | 0.05 (−0.03, 0.13) | 0.002 (−0.002, 0.01) | 0.005 (−0.0002, 0.01) |
| Among girls | ||||
| Concern | 0.09 (0.04, 0.14) *** | 0.08 (0.02, 0.14) * | 0.01 (0.002, 0.01) *** | 0.003 (−0.0001, 0.01) |
| Pressure to eat | −0.08 (−0.13, −0.03) ** | −0.08 (−0.14, −0.01) * | −0.004 (−0.01, −0.001) * | −0.005 (−0.01, −0.001) * |
| Control | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | 0.02 (−0.05, 0.08) | −0.001 (−0.004, 0.002) | −0.0001 (−0.004, 0.004) |
| Children with maternal education lower than college | ||||
| Concern | 0.15 (0.08, 0.22) *** | 0.09 (0.03, 0.15) ** | 0.01 (0.005, 0.01) *** | 0.01 (0.002, 0.01) ** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.03 (−0.09, 0.03) | −0.04 (−0.11, 0.02) | 0.001 (−0.003, 0.005) | −0.003 (−0.01, 0.001) |
| Control | −0.02 (−0.08, 0.04) | 0.02 (−0.04, 0.09) | −0.002 (−0.01, 0.002) | 0.002 (−0.002, 0.01) |
| Children with maternal education of college or above | ||||
| Concern | 0.11 (0.06, 0.17) *** | 0.12 (0.05, 0.19) *** | 0.01 (0.004, 0.01) *** | 0.01 (0.002, 0.01) ** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.10 (−0.15, −0.05) *** | −0.06 (−0.13, 0.02) | −0.01 (−0.01, −0.003) *** | −0.003 (−0.01, 0.001) |
| Control | 0.03 (−0.02, 0.08) | 0.07 (−0.01, 0.14) | 0.002 (−0.001, 0.01) | 0.004 (−0.001, 0.01) |
| Children with paternal education lower than college | ||||
| Concern | 0.13 (0.06, 0.20) *** | 0.10 (0.03, 0.16) ** | 0.01 (0.004, 0.01) *** | 0.01 (0.002, 0.01) ** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.06 (−0.12, 0.01) | −0.03 (−0.11, 0.04) | −0.002 (−0.01, 0.002) | −0.002 (−0.01, 0.002) |
| Control | 0.004 (−0.06, 0.07) | 0.04 (−0.03, 0.11) | 0.0004 (−0.004, 0.004) | 0.003 (−0.001, 0.01) |
| Children with paternal education of college or above | ||||
| Concern | 0.12 (0.07, 0.17) *** | 0.13 (0.07, 0.20) *** | 0.01 (0.005, 0.01) *** | 0.01 (0.004, 0.01) *** |
| Pressure to eat | −0.09 (−0.14, −0.04) *** | −0.06 (−0.13, 0.01) | −0.01 (−0.01, −0.002) *** | −0.002 (−0.01, 0.002) |
| Control | 0.03 (−0.02, 0.08) | 0.04 (−0.03, 0.11) | 0.001 (−0.002, 0.005) | 0.002 (−0.002, 0.01) |
Abbreviation: BMI: body mass index. a: Child sex, child school level, child BMI z-score (or WHtR), child city of residence, maternal and paternal BMI, and maternal and paternal educations were adjusted as covariates in the mixed-effects model. In child age- and sex-stratified and parental education-stratified analyses, models were adjusted for the same variables except for child age and child sex and maternal and paternal educations. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001. Numbers in bold indicated statistical significance.