Figure 1.

Nanoparticle exposure on biological systems may induce oxidative stress and affect the proteins involved in the stress response pathways (such as CAT, SODs, GPXs, GR, PRDXs, and PDI), the immune response (through TLR activation, immune cell proliferation and activation, and the production of inflammatory mediators), inflammatory responses (through inflammasome activity, the production of inflammatory mediators, and calcium, MAPK, KF-κB, and JAK-STAT signaling), mitochondrial function (including mitochondrial fission and fusion, amount of ATP produced, oxidative phosphorylation, and intrinsic apoptosis), biological signaling pathways (such as insulin, calcium, and nitric oxide signaling), detoxification (involving the Phase I and II detoxification enzymes and metallothioneins), as well as interactions of NPs with zinc-dependent proteins, copper-dependent proteins, iron-dependent proteins, and calcium-dependent proteins.