Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of all COVID-19 patients.
| Variable | All Patients | VTE (N = 276) | No VTE | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 3531) | (N = 3255) | |||
| (A) Comparison of patients in derivation cohort stratified by in-hospital venous thromboembolism status. | ||||
| Sex | 0.96 | |||
| Male | 1777 (50.3) | 138 (50.0) | 1639 (50.4) | |
| Female | 1754 (49.7) | 138 (50.0) | 1616 (49.6) | |
| Age (years) | 0.717 | |||
| 18–39 | 230 (6.5) | 14 (5.1) | 216 (6.6) | |
| 40–59 | 808 (22.9) | 65 (23.6) | 743 (22.8) | |
| 60–79 | 1602 (45.4) | 123 (44.6) | 1479 (45.4) | |
| ≥80 | 891 (25.2) | 74 (26.8) | 817 (25.1) | |
| Race/ethnicity * | 0.206 | |||
| Hispanic | 55 (1.6) | 1 (0.4) | 54 (1.7) | |
| Other | 251 (7.1) | 15 (5.4) | 236 (7.3) | |
| White | 2034 (57.6) | 159 (57.6) | 1875 (57.6) | |
| Black | 1191 (33.7) | 101 (36.6) | 1090 (33.5) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 0.155 | |||
| <18.5 | 81 (2.3) | 7 (2.5) | 74 (2.3) | |
| 18.5–24.9 | 678 (19.2) | 67 (24.3) | 611 (18.8) | |
| 25.0–29.9 | 1060 (30.0) | 79 (28.6) | 981 (30.1) | |
| ≥30.0 | 1712 (48.5) | 123 (44.6) | 1589 (48.8) | |
| Heart rate | 0.001 | |||
| <100 | 2173 (61.5) | 143 (51.8) | 2030 (62.4) | |
| ≥100 | 1358 (38.5) | 133 (48.2) | 1225 (37.6) | |
| Respiratory rate | 0.211 | |||
| <20 | 1647 (46.6) | 124 (44.9) | 1523 (46.8) | |
| 20–29 | 1576 (44.6) | 120 (43.5) | 1456 (44.7) | |
| ≥30 | 308 (8.7) | 32 (11.6) | 276 (8.5) | |
| Oxygen | 0.031 | |||
| Normal | 1516 (42.9) | 101 (36.6) | 1415 (43.5) | |
| Low | 2015 (57.1) | 175 (63.4) | 1840 (56.5) | |
| Systolic blood pressure | 0.053 | |||
| Normal | 938 (26.6) | 92 (33.3) | 846 (26.0) | |
| Low | 100 (2.8) | 5 (1.8) | 95 (2.9) | |
| High | 1981 (56.1) | 142 (51.4) | 1839 (56.5) | |
| Very high | 512 (14.5) | 37 (13.4) | 475 (14.6) | |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Hypertension | 2736 (77.5) | 213 (77.2) | 2523 (77.5) | 0.957 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 1493 (42.3) | 111 (40.2) | 1382 (42.5) | 0.509 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 1685 (47.7) | 124 (44.9) | 1561 (48.0) | 0.366 |
| Coronary artery disease | 709 (20.1) | 52 (18.8) | 657 (20.2) | 0.648 |
| Congestive heart failure | 454 (12.9) | 30 (10.9) | 424 (13.0) | 0.35 |
| Cerebrovascular accident | 455 (12.9) | 30 (10.9) | 425 (13.1) | 0.343 |
| Solid cancer and hematological malignancy | 609 (17.2) | 61 (22.1) | 548 (16.8) | 0.032 |
| Autoimmune disease | 212 (6.0) | 18 (6.5) | 194 (6.0) | 0.806 |
| Liver disease * | 29 (0.8) | 5 (1.8) | 24 (0.7) | 0.071 |
| Interstitial lung disease * | 19 (0.5) | 1 (0.4) | 18 (0.6) | 1 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 509 (14.4) | 30 (10.9) | 479 (14.7) | 0.097 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 371 (10.5) | 22 (8.0) | 349 (10.7) | 0.184 |
| Deep vein thrombosis | 251 (7.1) | 45 (16.3) | 206 (6.3) | <0.001 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 164 (4.6) | 34 (12.3) | 130 (4.0) | <0.001 |
| Thyroid disease | 509 (14.4) | 44 (15.9) | 465 (14.3) | 0.507 |
| Social history | ||||
| Smoker | 272 (7.7) | 20 (7.2) | 252 (7.7) | 0.858 |
| Alcohol use | 61 (1.7) | 7 (2.5) | 54 (1.7) | 0.329 |
| Presenting laboratory values | ||||
| Leukocytes | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 2666 (75.5) | 182 (65.9) | 2484 (76.3) | |
| Low | 314 (8.9) | 22 (8.0) | 292 (9.0) | |
| High | 551 (15.6) | 72 (26.1) | 479 (14.7) | |
| Lymphocytes * | 0.163 | |||
| Normal | 1377 (39.0) | 116 (42.0) | 1261 (38.7) | |
| Low | 2110 (59.8) | 154 (55.8) | 1956 (60.1) | |
| High | 44 (1.3) | 6 (2.2) | 38 (1.2) | |
| Neutrophils | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 3026 (85.7) | 211 (76.4) | 2815 (86.5) | |
| Low | 77 (2.2) | 8 (2.9) | 69 (2.1) | |
| High | 428 (12.1) | 57 (20.7) | 371 (11.4) | |
| Neutrophil/Lymphocyte ratio * | 0.027 | |||
| Normal | 877 (24.8) | 58 (21.0) | 819 (25.2) | |
| Low | 34 (1.0) | 3 (1.1) | 31 (1.0) | |
| Mild | 1564 (44.3) | 111 (40.2) | 1453 (44.6) | |
| Moderate | 729 (20.7) | 66 (23.9) | 663 (20.4) | |
| Severe | 327 (9.3) | 38 (13.8) | 289 (8.9) | |
| B-type natriuretic peptide | 0.006 | |||
| Normal | 2221 (62.9) | 152 (55.1) | 2069 (63.6) | |
| High | 1310 (37.1) | 124 (44.9) | 1186 (36.4) | |
| C-reactive protein | 0.011 | |||
| Normal | 86 (2.4) | 0 (0.0) | 86 (2.6) | |
| High | 3445 (97.6) | 276 (100.0) | 3169 (97.4) | |
| D-dimer | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1458 (41.3) | 40 (14.5) | 1418 (43.6) | |
| High | 1707 (48.3) | 152 (55.1) | 1555 (47.8) | |
| Very high | 366 (10.4) | 84 (30.4) | 282 (8.7) | |
| Ferritin | 0.63 | |||
| Normal | 1475 (41.8) | 111 (40.2) | 1364 (41.9) | |
| High | 2056 (58.2) | 165 (59.8) | 1891 (58.1) | |
| Lactate dehydrogenase | 0.001 | |||
| Normal | 703 (19.9) | 38 (13.8) | 665 (20.4) | |
| High | 2828 (80.1) | 238 (86.2) | 2590 (79.6) | |
| Blood urea nitrogen | 0.04 | |||
| Normal | 2105 (59.6) | 148 (53.6) | 1957 (60.1) | |
| High | 1426 (40.4) | 128 (46.4) | 1298 (39.9) | |
| Creatinine | 0.375 | |||
| Normal | 2494 (70.6) | 188 (68.1) | 2306 (70.8) | |
| High | 1037 (29.4) | 88 (31.9) | 949 (29.2) | |
| Total bilirubin | 0.108 | |||
| Normal | 3364 (95.3) | 257 (93.1) | 3107 (95.5) | |
| High | 167 (4.7) | 19 (6.9) | 148 (4.5) | |
| Aspartate transaminase | 0.616 | |||
| Normal | 1545 (43.8) | 113 (40.9) | 1432 (44.0) | |
| Low | 71 (2.0) | 6 (2.2) | 65 (2.0) | |
| High | 1915 (54.2) | 157 (56.9) | 1758 (54.0) | |
| Alanine transaminase | 0.065 | |||
| Normal | 2346 (66.4) | 167 (60.5) | 2179 (66.9) | |
| Low | 310 (8.8) | 32 (11.6) | 278 (8.5) | |
| High | 875 (24.8) | 77 (27.9) | 798 (24.5) | |
| Alkaline phosphatase | 0.437 | |||
| Normal | 3108 (88.0) | 240 (87.0) | 2868 (88.1) | |
| Low | 178 (5.0) | 12 (4.3) | 166 (5.1) | |
| High | 245 (7.0) | 24 (8.7) | 221 (6.8) | |
| Albumin | <0.001 | |||
| Good | 916 (25.9) | 43 (15.6) | 873 (26.8) | |
| Low | 371 (10.5) | 54 (19.6) | 317 (9.7) | |
| Borderline | 2244 (63.6) | 179 (64.9) | 2065 (63.4) | |
| Troponin-I | 0.129 | |||
| Normal | 2103 (59.6) | 152 (55.1) | 1951 (59.9) | |
| High | 1428 (40.4) | 124 (44.9) | 1304 (40.1) | |
| Creatine phosphokinase | 0.889 | |||
| Normal | 2347 (66.5) | 185 (67.0) | 2162 (66.4) | |
| High | 1184 (33.5) | 91 (33.0) | 1093 (33.6) | |
| Interleukin-6 | 0.031 | |||
| Normal | 326 (9.2) | 15 (5.4) | 311 (9.6) | |
| High | 3205 (90.8) | 261 (94.6) | 2944 (90.4) | |
| Lactate * | 0.342 | |||
| Normal | 2755 (78.0) | 214 (77.5) | 2541 (78.1) | |
| Low | 4 (0.1) | 1 (0.4) | 3 (0.1) | |
| High | 772 (21.9) | 61 (22.1) | 711 (21.8) | |
| Procalcitonin | 0.602 | |||
| Normal | 2296 (65.0) | 175 (63.4) | 2121 (65.2) | |
| High | 1235 (35.0) | 101 (36.6) | 1134 (34.8) | |
| Potassium | 0.028 | |||
| Normal | 2644 (74.9) | 197 (71.4) | 2447 (75.2) | |
| Hypokalemia | 652 (18.5) | 50 (18.1) | 602 (18.5) | |
| Hyperkalemia | 235 (6.7) | 29 (10.5) | 206 (6.3) | |
| Platelet Count | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 2793 (79.1) | 212 (76.8) | 2581 (79.3) | |
| Low | 610 (17.3) | 41 (14.9) | 569 (17.5) | |
| High | 128 (3.6) | 23 (8.3) | 105 (3.2) | |
| (B) Comparison of patients in validation cohort stratified by in-hospital venous thromboembolism status. | ||||
| Sex | 0.604 | |||
| Male | 1187 (47.3) | 90 (49.5) | 1097 (47.2) | |
| Female | 1321 (52.7) | 92 (50.5) | 1229 (52.8) | |
| Age (years) | 0.162 | |||
| 18–39 | 369 (14.7) | 18 (9.9) | 351 (15.1) | |
| 40–59 | 734 (29.3) | 51 (28.0) | 683 (29.4) | |
| 60–79 | 989 (39.4) | 76 (41.8) | 913 (39.3) | |
| ≥80 | 416 (16.6) | 37 (20.3) | 379 (16.3) | |
| Race/ethnicity * | 0.324 | |||
| Hispanic | 63 (2.5) | 4 (2.2) | 59 (2.5) | |
| Other | 182 (7.3) | 15 (8.2) | 167 (7.2) | |
| White | 1475 (58.8) | 96 (52.7) | 1379 (59.3) | |
| Black | 788 (31.4) | 67 (36.8) | 721 (31.0) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 0.422 | |||
| <18.5 | 72 (2.9) | 8 (4.4) | 64 (2.8) | |
| 18.5–24.9 | 448 (17.9) | 28 (15.4) | 420 (18.1) | |
| 25.0–29.9 | 708 (28.2) | 56 (30.8) | 652 (28.0) | |
| ≥30.0 | 1280 (51.0) | 90 (49.5) | 1190 (51.2) | |
| Heart rate | 0.034 | |||
| <100 | 1542 (61.5) | 98 (53.8) | 1444 (62.1) | |
| ≥100 | 966 (38.5) | 84 (46.2) | 882 (37.9) | |
| Respiratory rate | <0.001 | |||
| <20 | 1385 (55.2) | 75 (41.2) | 1310 (56.3) | |
| 20–29 | 1004 (40.0) | 84 (46.2) | 920 (39.6) | |
| ≥30 | 119 (4.7) | 23 (12.6) | 96 (4.1) | |
| Oxygen saturation | 0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1216 (48.5) | 66 (36.3) | 1150 (49.4) | |
| Low | 1292 (51.5) | 116 (63.7) | 1176 (50.6) | |
| Systolic blood pressure * | 0.891 | |||
| Normal | 690 (27.5) | 49 (26.9) | 641 (27.6) | |
| Low | 55 (2.2) | 5 (2.7) | 50 (2.1) | |
| High | 1422 (56.7) | 105 (57.7) | 1317 (56.6) | |
| Very high | 341 (13.6) | 23 (12.6) | 318 (13.7) | |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Hypertension | 1727 (68.9) | 134 (73.6) | 1593 (68.5) | 0.174 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 991 (39.5) | 70 (38.5) | 921 (39.6) | 0.824 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 1069 (42.6) | 73 (40.1) | 996 (42.8) | 0.526 |
| Coronary artery disease | 386 (15.4) | 27 (14.8) | 359 (15.4) | 0.913 |
| Congestive heart failure | 352 (14.0) | 30 (16.5) | 322 (13.8) | 0.381 |
| Cerebrovascular accident | 318 (12.7) | 23 (12.6) | 295 (12.7) | 1 |
| Solid cancer and hematological malignancy | 359 (14.3) | 33 (18.1) | 326 (14.0) | 0.156 |
| Autoimmune disease | 122 (4.9) | 5 (2.7) | 117 (5.0) | 0.23 |
| Liver disease * | 42 (1.7) | 4 (2.2) | 38 (1.6) | 0.542 |
| Interstitial lung disease * | 12 (0.5) | 0 (0.0) | 12 (0.5) | 1 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 307 (12.2) | 23 (12.6) | 284 (12.2) | 0.958 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 318 (12.7) | 24 (13.2) | 294 (12.6) | 0.922 |
| Deep vein thrombosis | 256 (10.2) | 28 (15.4) | 228 (9.8) | 0.023 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 185 (7.4) | 37 (20.3) | 148 (6.4) | <0.001 |
| Thyroid disease | 352 (14.0) | 24 (13.2) | 328 (14.1) | 0.817 |
| Social history | ||||
| Smoker | 265 (10.6) | 12 (6.6) | 253 (10.9) | 0.092 |
| Alcohol use | 88 (3.5) | 4 (2.2) | 84 (3.6) | 0.43 |
| Presenting laboratory values | ||||
| Leukocytes | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1899 (75.7) | 112 (61.5) | 1787 (76.8) | |
| Low | 252 (10.0) | 15 (8.2) | 237 (10.2) | |
| High | 357 (14.2) | 55 (30.2) | 302 (13.0) | |
| Lymphocytes | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1405 (56.0) | 80 (44.0) | 1325 (57.0) | |
| Low | 732 (29.2) | 56 (30.8) | 676 (29.1) | |
| High | 371 (14.8) | 46 (25.3) | 325 (14.0) | |
| Neutrophils * | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 2016 (80.4) | 125 (68.7) | 1891 (81.3) | |
| Low | 194 (7.7) | 15 (8.2) | 179 (7.7) | |
| High | 298 (11.9) | 42 (23.1) | 256 (11.0) | |
| Neutrophil/Lymphocyte ratio * | 0.029 | |||
| Normal | 1024 (40.8) | 60 (33.0) | 964 (41.4) | |
| Low | 330 (13.2) | 30 (16.5) | 300 (12.9) | |
| Mild | 7883 (31.2) | 55 (30.2) | 728 (31.3) | |
| Moderate | 254 (10.1) | 22 (12.1) | 232 (10.0) | |
| Severe | 117 (4.7) | 15 (8.2) | 102 (4.4) | |
| B-type natriuretic peptide | 0.048 | |||
| Normal | 1341 (53.5) | 84 (46.2) | 1257 (54.0) | |
| High | 1167 (46.5) | 98 (53.8) | 1069 (46.0) | |
| C-reactive protein | 0.415 | |||
| Normal | 105 (4.2) | 5 (2.7) | 100 (4.3) | |
| High | 2403 (95.8) | 177 (97.3) | 2226 (95.7) | |
| D-dimer | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1276 (50.9) | 34 (18.7) | 1242 (53.4) | |
| High | 1058 (42.2) | 99 (54.4) | 959 (41.2) | |
| Very high | 174 (6.9) | 49 (26.9) | 125 (5.4) | |
| Ferritin | 0.101 | |||
| Normal | 1187 (47.3) | 75 (41.2) | 1112 (47.8) | |
| High | 1321 (52.7) | 107 (58.8) | 1214 (52.2) | |
| Lactate dehydrogenase | 0.002 | |||
| Normal | 452 (18.0) | 17 (9.3) | 435 (18.7) | |
| High | 2056 (82.0) | 165 (90.7) | 1891 (81.3) | |
| Blood urea nitrogen | <0.001 | |||
| Normal | 1685 (67.2) | 99 (54.4) | 1586 (68.2) | |
| High | 823 (32.8) | 83 (45.6) | 740 (31.8) | |
| Creatinine | 0.026 | |||
| Normal | 1938 (77.3) | 128 (70.3) | 1810 (77.8) | |
| High | 570 (22.7) | 54 (29.7) | 516 (22.2) | |
| Total bilirubin | 0.138 | |||
| Normal | 2369 (94.5) | 167 (91.8) | 2202 (94.7) | |
| High | 139 (5.5) | 15 (8.2) | 124 (5.3) | |
| Aspartate transaminase | 0.084 | |||
| Normal | 1410 (56.2) | 88 (48.4) | 1322 (56.8) | |
| Low | 73 (2.9) | 6 (3.3) | 67 (2.9) | |
| High | 1025 (40.9) | 88 (48.4) | 937 (40.3) | |
| Alanine transaminase | 0.732 | |||
| Normal | 2012 (80.2) | 148 (81.3) | 1864 (80.1) | |
| Low | 143 (5.7) | 8 (4.4) | 135 (5.8) | |
| High | 353 (14.1) | 26 (14.3) | 327 (14.1) | |
| Alkaline phosphatase | 0.793 | |||
| Normal | 2182 (87.0) | 156 (85.7) | 2026 (87.1) | |
| Low | 112 (4.5) | 8 (4.4) | 104 (4.5) | |
| High | 214 (8.5) | 18 (9.9) | 196 (8.4) | |
| Albumin | <.001 | |||
| Good | 748 (29.8) | 32 (17.6) | 716 (30.8) | |
| Low | 254 (10.1) | 30 (16.5) | 224 (9.6) | |
| Borderline | 1506 (60.0) | 120 (65.9) | 1386 (59.6) | |
| Troponin-I | 0.001 | |||
| Normal | 645 (25.7) | 27 (14.8) | 618 (26.6) | |
| High | 1863 (74.3) | 155 (85.2) | 1708 (73.4) | |
| Creatine phosphokinase | 0.764 | |||
| Normal | 1658 (66.1) | 118 (64.8) | 1540 (66.2) | |
| High | 850 (33.9) | 64 (35.2) | 786 (33.8) | |
| Interleukin 6 | 0.089 | |||
| Normal | 165 (6.6) | 6 (3.3) | 159 (6.8) | |
| High | 2343 (93.4) | 176 (96.7) | 2167 (93.2) | |
| Lactate * | 0.636 | |||
| Normal | 1842 (73.4) | 129 (70.9) | 1713 (73.6) | |
| Low | 7 (0.3) | 0 (0.0) | 7 (0.3) | |
| High | 659 (26.3) | 53 (29.1) | 606 (26.1) | |
| Procalcitonin | 0.271 | |||
| Normal | 1400 (55.8) | 94 (51.6) | 1306 (56.1) | |
| High | 1108 (44.2) | 88 (48.4) | 1020 (43.9) | |
| Potassium | 0.663 | |||
| Normal | 1900 (75.8) | 133 (73.1) | 1767 (76.0) | |
| Hypokalemia | 479 (19.1) | 38 (20.9) | 441 (19.0) | |
| Hyperkalemia | 129 (5.1) | 11 (6.0) | 118 (5.1) | |
| Platelet Count | 0.247 | |||
| Normal | 2008 (80.1) | 145 (79.7) | 1863 (80.1) | |
| Low | 425 (16.9) | 28 (15.4) | 397 (17.1) | |
| High | 75 (3.0) | 9 (4.9) | 66 (2.8) | |
* Fisher exact tests were used for these variables; chi-square tests were used otherwise. Abbreviation: VTE, venous thromboembolism.