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. 2022 Jul 27;12(7):220174. doi: 10.1098/rsob.220174

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© 2022 The Authors.

Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Figure 1. — The Drosophila brain and hierarchical organization of peptidergic signalling. (a) The brain of adult Drosophila with some of the neuropils indicated in colour. The central complex (CX) is highlighted in blue and red. Pars intercerebralis (PI), optic lobe (OL), mushroom bodies (MB), antennal lobes (AL), lateral horn (LH) and suboesophageal zone (SEZ) are also highlighted. (b) Three levels of modulatory peptide signalling. (1) Widely arborizing orchestrating neurons innervate many neuropils and receive multiple inputs of different kinds. (2) Intermediate size peptidergic neurons (often in one hemisphere only) interconnect several regions. They may for instance receive inputs from clock neurons and others and supply outputs to the fan-shaped body to mediate nutrition-dependent sleep activity. (3) Local neurons mediate executive (intrinsic) neuromodulation, here exemplified by a local neuron in the antennal lobe. Such neurons can serve as an interface between different odour channels and also receive higher-level modulatory inputs. At this level also some of the odorant-sensitive neurons are known to signal locally with neuropeptides to modulate sensory gain. (c–f) Confocal images of GFP labelled neurons of the types indicated in (b). (c) SIFamide-expressing neurons widely arborizing throughout the brain (level 1 in (b)). (d) Leucokinin-expressing neurons. One of the LHLK neurons is encircled (level 2 in (b)). (e) A small number of local neurons (LNs) innervating each of the antennal lobes (level 3 in (b)). Several such neurons express tachykinin. (f) A single drosulfakinin (DSK)-expressing neurons (MP1a type) with wide branches (level 1 in (b)). (g) Interorgan signalling. Neurosecretory cells in the brain (1) and endocrine cells in corpora cardiaca (2) release hormones into the circulation that act on peripheral targets such as the intestine (3). The intestine and the fat body (4) produce peptide hormones that signal to the brain. Brains in (a) and (b) were made in RStudio using the Natverse package and (g) was generated in BioRender.