Table 1.
Population characteristics of the 1,442 mother-child pairs, stratified by child overweight or obesity (OWO) status.
| Characteristic | Total Sample (n=1442) | Children Without OWO (n=830) | Children With OWO (n=612) | p-Value* | Adjusted p-Value** |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal | |||||
| Pregnancy BMI category, n (%) | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||
| Mothers without OWO | 687 (47.6) | 478 (57.6) | 209 (34.2) | ||
| Mothers with OWO | 755 (52.4) | 352 (42.4) | 403 (65.8) | ||
| BMI, mean ± SD, kg/m2 | 26.74 ± 6.55 | 25.41 ± 5.89 | 28.55 ± 6.97 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Maternal age, n (%) | 0.015 | 0.052 | |||
| <20 | 123 (8.5) | 85 (10.2) | 38 (6.2) | ||
| >=35 | 263 (18.2) | 141 (17.0) | 122 (19.9) | ||
| 20–35 | 1056 (73.2) | 604 (72.8) | 452 (73.9) | ||
| Race/ethnicity, n (%) | 0.33 | 0.49 | |||
| Black | 967 (67.1) | 555 (66.9) | 412 (67.3) | ||
| White | 74 (5.1) | 50 (6.0) | 24 (3.9) | ||
| Hispanic | 291 (20.2) | 163 (19.6) | 128 (20.9) | ||
| Others | 110 (7.6) | 62 (7.5) | 48 (7.8) | ||
| Marital status, n (%) | 0.83 | 0.93 | |||
| Not Married | 970 (67.3) | 556 (67.0) | 414 (67.6) | ||
| Married | 472 (32.7) | 274 (33.0) | 198 (32.4) | ||
| Educational level, n (%) | 0.31 | 0.49 | |||
| Below high school | 381 (26.4) | 216 (26.0) | 165 (27.0) | ||
| High school | 551 (38.2) | 307 (37.0) | 244 (39.9) | ||
| Above high school | 510 (35.4) | 307 (37.0) | 203 (33.2) | ||
| Parity, n (%) | 0.39 | 0.53 | |||
| Nulliparous | 602 (41.7) | 355 (42.8) | 247 (40.4) | ||
| Multiparous | 840 (58.3) | 475 (57.2) | 365 (59.6) | ||
| Breastfeeding type, n (%) | 0.016 | 0.052 | |||
| Breastfeeding only | 112 (7.8) | 74 (8.9) | 38 (6.2) | ||
| Both breastfeeding and formula feeding | 987 (68.4) | 578 (69.6) | 409 (66.8) | ||
| Formula feeding only | 343 (23.8) | 178 (21.4) | 165 (27.0) | ||
| Smoking, n (%) | 0.043 | 0.12 | |||
| Never | 1192 (82.7) | 701 (84.5) | 491 (80.2) | ||
| Continuous & Quitter | 250 (17.3) | 129 (15.5) | 121 (19.8) | ||
| Fish intake, n (%) | 0.98 | 0.99 | |||
| None | 322 (22.3) | 187 (22.5) | 135 (22.1) | ||
| <= 1 day/week | 416 (28.8) | 239 (28.8) | 177 (28.9) | ||
| > 1 day/week | 704 (48.8) | 404 (48.7) | 300 (49.0) | ||
| Mercury, mean (SD)***, μg/L | 2.02 (2.57) | 1.94 (2.53) | 2.14 (2.61) | 0.053 | 0.13 |
| Lead, mean (SD), μg/dL | 2.68 (1.90) | 2.58 (1.90) | 2.81 (1.90) | 0.013 | 0.052 |
| Cadmium, mean (SD), μg/L | 0.70 (1.97) | 0.68 (1.94) | 0.72 (2.00) | 0.17 | 0.29 |
| Selenium, mean (SD), μg/L | 284.07 (1.22) | 284.04 (1.22) | 284.10 (1.22) | 0.98 | 0.99 |
| Folate, mean (SD), nmol/L | 32.21 (1.69) | 32.86 (1.69) | 31.34 (1.67) | 0.089 | 0.17 |
| Child | |||||
| Sex, n (%) | 0.74 | 0.93 | |||
| Female | 720 (49.9) | 418 (50.4) | 302 (49.3) | ||
| Male | 722 (50.1) | 412 (49.6) | 310 (50.7) | ||
| Preterm birth, n (%) | 348 (24.1) | 203 (24.5) | 145 (23.7) | 0.78 | 0.93 |
| Low birth weight, n (%) | 328 (22.7) | 203 (24.5) | 125 (20.4) | 0.081 | 0.17 |
| BMI Z score, mean ± SD | 0.73 ± 1.22 | −0.11 ± 0.86 | 1.86 ± 0.53 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
*
The p-values were calculated using the two-sided t-test for normal continuous variables and log-transformed non-normal continuous variables and χ^2 test for categorical variables.
**
The adjusted p-values were obtained using Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) correction (70).
***
For non-normal continuous variables (Hg, Pb, Cd, Se, folate), geometric mean and SDs are provided.