Table 2.
Exercise self-efficacy and intention, physical fitness, perceived happiness and health, and quality of life of the experimental and control groups at baseline and 12-week follow-up by intention-to-treat analysis (n = 139).
| Experimental group (n = 70) | Control group (n = 69) | Between-group comparison at 12-week follow-up | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline | 12-week follow-up | Within-group difference | Baseline | 12-week follow-up | Within-group difference | ||||||
| Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | P -Value | Cohen's d | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | P -Value | Cohen's d | Adjusted mean difference (95% CI) | P -Value | Cohen's d | |
| Exercise self-efficacy and intention | |||||||||||
| Knowledge of ZTEX | 6.8 ± 2.8 | 7.4 ± 2.2 | 0.07 | 0.23 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Self-efficacy of doing ZTEx | 6.7 ± 2.3 | 6.7 ± 1.9 | 0.91 | 0.01 | |||||||
| Expectancy toward ZTEx | 7.1 ± 2.3 | 7.5 ± 2.0 | 0.24 | 0.15 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Plan on doing ZTEx | 7.1 ± 2.3 | 6.9 ± 2.1 | 0.51 | −0.08 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Physical fitness | |||||||||||
| Body composition | |||||||||||
| Bodyweight, kg | 70.2 ± 12.9 | 70.2 ± 12.8 | 0.98 | 0 | 73.5 ± 11.5 | 73.4 ± 11.4 | 0.53 | −0.01 | 0.06 (−0.47, 0.60) | 0.81 | 0.04 |
| Body fat, % | 30.6 ± 6.1 | 30.3 ± 6.6 | 0.30 | −0.13 | 29.1 ± 5.5 | 29.0 ± 5.3 | 0.69 | −0.05 | −0.21 (−1.10, 0.68) | 0.64 | −0.07 |
| Waist circumference, cm | 92.5 ± 11.2 | 92.0 ± 10.9 | 0.13 | −0.04 | 95.6 ± 9.6 | 95.7 ± 8.3 | 0.87 | 0.01 | −0.89 (−2.20, 0.42) | 0.18 | −0.22 |
| Muscle strength | |||||||||||
| Handgrip test (right), kg | 31.1 ± 23.2 | 27.5 ± 8.5 | 0.16 | −0.21 | 29.0 ± 9.3 | 29.9 ± 9.9 | 0.17 | 0.09 | −1.17 (−3.50, 1.17) | 0.32 | −0.16 |
| Handgrip test (left), kg | 26.1 ± 9.2 | 26.1 ± 8.3 | 0.98 | 0 | 27.5 ± 9.5 | 27.8 ± 9.7 | 0.60 | 0.03 | −0.18 (−1.75, 1.40) | 0.82 | −0.04 |
| 30-s chair stand test, no. of stands | 15.3 ± 6.8 | 16.9 ± 6.4 | 0.02* | 0.25 | 15.3 ± 4.2 | 15.9 ± 5.0 | 0.20 | 0.14 | 0.86 (−0.66, 2.39) | 0.27 | 0.18 |
| Perceived happiness and health | |||||||||||
| Perceived happiness | 6.8 ± 1.6 | 7.2 ± 1.7 | <0.001*** | 0.27 | 7.2 ± 2.0 | 7.4 ± 1.8 | 0.32 | 0.09 | 0.15 (−0.25, 0.54) | 0.47 | 0.12 |
| Perceived health | 6.1 ± 1.9 | 6.1 ± 1.6 | 0.80 | −0.03 | 6.1 ± 1.8 | 6.4 ± 2.1 | 0.28 | 0.15 | −0.36 (−0.92, 0.20) | 0.21 | −0.21 |
| Quality of life | |||||||||||
| Physical health | 14.4 ± 1.5 | 15.4 ± 1.9 | <0.001*** | 0.57 | 14.3 ± 2.0 | 15.2 ± 2.0 | <0.001*** | 0.43 | 0.23 (−0.34, 0.81) | 0.42 | 0.13 |
| Psychological | 13.1 ± 1.5 | 15.3 ± 2.3 | <0.001*** | 1.13 | 12.7 ± 2.0 | 14.9 ± 2.4 | <0.001*** | 0.99 | 0.13 (−0.60, 0.85) | 0.73 | 0.06 |
| Social Relationships | 15.0 ± 2.2 | 15.0 ± 2.2 | 0.79 | 0.03 | 15.1 ± 0.3 | 14.5 ± 2.3 | 0.017* | −0.26 | 0.68 (0.04, 1.31) | 0.04# | 0.35 |
| Environment | 15.2 ± 1.9 | 15.3 ± 1.9 | 0.50 | 0.08 | 15.1 ± 2.3 | 15.0 ± 2.1 | 0.65 | −0.05 | 0.35 (−0.19, 0.89) | 0.20 | 0.21 |
ZTEx, Zero-time exercise refers to simple strength- and stamina-enhancing physical activity.
Exercise self-efficacy and intention regarding ZTEx using a scale of 0–10 for each question; higher scores indicate better outcomes.
Perceived happiness and health using a scale of 0–10; higher scores indicate better outcomes.
Quality of life using a WHO Quality of Life-Short Form (WHOQOL-BREF) with a 5-point Likert scale, higher scores indicate better quality of life.
Within-group comparison during the 12-week follow-up was increased by paired sample t-test;
P < 0.05,
P < 0.001.
The between-group comparison was done by linear mixed model, adjusted for age, sex and baseline values;
P < 0.05.
Effect size (Cohen's d): small, 0.2; moderate, 0.5; large, 0.8.