. 2022 Jul 27;22:1431. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-13784-8

Table 1.

Studies measuring exposure and impact of outdoor food marketing

Author(s), year of publication	Study objectives	Study setting	Study Design, participants	Methods	Outdoor Advertising mediums included	Main results relating to outdoor advertising
Fernandez et al. (2019) [70]	To determine the association between food marketing exposure and consumption of confectioneries among pre-school children in Central Jakarta.	Early childhood education centres/ schools in Jakarta, Indonesia	Cross-sectional questionnaire. 240 caregivers of preschool children aged 3–5. (79.2% mothers)	Caregivers interviewed on frequency of intake of 26 confectionaries at home and frequency of food marketing exposure in the past week.	Advertising seen on public transport	35.4% of participants reported exposure to advertising on public transport at least once in the last week. Exposure to food advertising on public transport was associated with consumption of two products - Beng-beng (wafer crisp covered with chocolate; p = .006) and Walls (ice cream cup; p < .001). No significant association between exposure to food marketing on transport and consumption of the remaining 8 most consumed confectionaries.
Lesser et al. (2013) [53]	To investigate whether individuals living in areas with higher proportions of outdoor food advertising, compared to those in living in areas with lower amounts, have greater odds of obesity and a higher rate of soda consumption.	Los Angeles and Louisiana, USA	Cross-sectional survey and content analysis. A systematic sample of 2589 adults from geographically referenced telephone-listed households from census tracts.	Teams visited each location, following the perimeter then going through each street recording all ads classified as alcohol, tobacco, food and/or restaurants and other. Documented GPS of each ad, format used and frequency of each ad. Telephone interviews collected data on height, weight, and how many 12 oz. sodas were consumed in the last 24 hours.	Posters, flyers, flags, banners, transit shelters or benches, billboards, Storefront ads excluded	69.4% of all areas had any outdoor ads, 44.3% had outdoor F&B ads. On average, 10.4% of ads were related to F&B. LA had significantly more ads per census tract than New Orleans, Louisiana (p < .001, 14 v. 6) but a lower percentage of food ads (p < 0.05, 6% v. 15%). Participants on average drank 1.3 12 oz. sodas per day, every 10% increase in food ads was associated with a 6% increase in sodas consumed (IRR 1.06, 95%CI 1.03 to 1.0, p < .001), and odds of obesity increased by 5% (OR 1.05, 95%CI 1.0 to 1.10, p < .03). PROGRESS: Low-income areas with a majority Black population were 2.59 times more likely to have any food ads than high-income white areas (95% CI = 1.04–6.48), whilst low-income areas with majority Latino residents were 3.1 times more likely to have any food ads compared to high-income white areas (95% CI = 1.03–9.2). There was no significant relationship between census tract characteristics and % of food ads.
Yau et al. (2021) [71]	To explore sociodemographic differences in exposure to advertising for foods and drinks high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) and whether exposure is associated with body mass index (BMI).	London and the North of England	Cross-sectional Survey The main food shopper of 1552 households.	Assessed self-reported exposure (last 7 days) to advertising for HFSS processed foods, sugary drinks, sugary cereals, sweet snacks, fast food and food delivery services in 5 different settings (traditional, digital, recreational, functional, transport). Answers were coded as exposed or not. BMI calculated using self-reported data (available for 81.7% of participants).	Transport (outside/inside buses, tube, tram or train stations, bus stops, taxi and back of bus ticket)	36.4% of participants reported exposure to food advertising across transport networks. There was no significant relationship between exposure on public transport and weight status. PROGRESS: No significant differences in food advertising exposure across transport by socioeconomic position. Full time employees were 50% more likely to report advertising exposure on public transport than those not looking for, or unable to work. Demographic: 18–34 year olds were 96% more likely to report exposure to advertising on public transport than > 65 s. But odds of reporting exposure were not significantly higher in age groups 35–44, 45–54 and 55–64 than ≥65.

Author(s), year of publication

Study objectives

Study setting

Study Design, participants

Methods

Outdoor Advertising mediums included

Main results relating to outdoor advertising

Fernandez et al. (2019) [70]

To determine the association between food marketing exposure and consumption of confectioneries among pre-school children in Central Jakarta.

Early childhood education centres/ schools in Jakarta, Indonesia

Cross-sectional questionnaire.

240 caregivers of preschool children aged 3–5. (79.2% mothers)

Caregivers interviewed on frequency of intake of 26 confectionaries at home and frequency of food marketing exposure in the past week.

Advertising seen on public transport

35.4% of participants reported exposure to advertising on public transport at least once in the last week. Exposure to food advertising on public transport was associated with consumption of two products - Beng-beng (wafer crisp covered with chocolate; p = .006) and Walls (ice cream cup; p < .001).

No significant association between exposure to food marketing on transport and consumption of the remaining 8 most consumed confectionaries.

Lesser et al. (2013) [53]

To investigate whether individuals living in areas with higher proportions of outdoor food advertising, compared to those in living in areas with lower amounts, have greater odds of obesity and a higher rate of soda consumption.

Los Angeles and Louisiana, USA

Cross-sectional survey and content analysis.

A systematic sample of 2589 adults from geographically referenced telephone-listed households from census tracts.

Teams visited each location, following the perimeter then going through each street recording all ads classified as alcohol, tobacco, food and/or restaurants and other. Documented GPS of each ad, format used and frequency of each ad. Telephone interviews collected data on height, weight, and how many 12 oz. sodas were consumed in the last 24 hours.

Posters, flyers, flags, banners, transit shelters or benches, billboards, Storefront ads excluded

69.4% of all areas had any outdoor ads, 44.3% had outdoor F&B ads. On average, 10.4% of ads were related to F&B.

LA had significantly more ads per census tract than New Orleans, Louisiana (p < .001, 14 v. 6) but a lower percentage of food ads (p < 0.05, 6% v. 15%).

Participants on average drank 1.3 12 oz. sodas per day, every 10% increase in food ads was associated with a 6% increase in sodas consumed (IRR 1.06, 95%CI 1.03 to 1.0, p < .001), and odds of obesity increased by 5% (OR 1.05, 95%CI 1.0 to 1.10, p < .03).

PROGRESS: Low-income areas with a majority Black population were 2.59 times more likely to have any food ads than high-income white areas (95% CI = 1.04–6.48), whilst low-income areas with majority Latino residents were 3.1 times more likely to have any food ads compared to high-income white areas (95% CI = 1.03–9.2).

There was no significant relationship between census tract characteristics and % of food ads.

Yau et al. (2021) [71]

To explore sociodemographic differences in exposure to advertising for foods and drinks high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) and whether exposure is associated with body mass index (BMI).

London and the North of England

Cross-sectional Survey

The main food shopper of 1552 households.

Assessed self-reported exposure (last 7 days) to advertising for HFSS processed foods, sugary drinks, sugary cereals, sweet snacks, fast food and food delivery services in 5 different settings (traditional, digital, recreational, functional, transport). Answers were coded as exposed or not. BMI calculated using self-reported data (available for 81.7% of participants).

Transport (outside/inside buses, tube, tram or train stations, bus stops, taxi and back of bus ticket)

36.4% of participants reported exposure to food advertising across transport networks. There was no significant relationship between exposure on public transport and weight status.

PROGRESS: No significant differences in food advertising exposure across transport by socioeconomic position. Full time employees were 50% more likely to report advertising exposure on public transport than those not looking for, or unable to work.

Demographic: 18–34 year olds were 96% more likely to report exposure to advertising on public transport than > 65 s. But odds of reporting exposure were not significantly higher in age groups 35–44, 45–54 and 55–64 than ≥65.

Abbreviations: HFSS Foods high in fats, salt, or sugar F&B Food and beverage, Ads Advertisements, WHO World Health Organization