Table 7.
Revealing distinctive characteristics of automated terminals in terms of physical, operating, implementation and financial attributes
| Research questions | Attributes of automated terminals | Main findings |
|---|---|---|
| R1: When and to what extent have container terminals been automated, and who is responsible for their operation? | Full or semi-automated | 29% of all automated terminals are fully automated |
| Number and temporal development | Accelerated adoption: 76% of all automated terminals opened after 2012; still, they represent only 3% of all container terminals globally | |
| Type of operator | 62% Operated by pure stevedores, 22% by carrier-related operators | |
| R2: Are there any geographic patterns in the global dispersion of automated terminals with some port regions more likely to opt for automation of terminal equipment? | Terminal location (country and region) | Automated terminals exist in all continents except Africa and Antarctica; They are located in 23 countries, evenly distributed between semi-automation and full automation; Europe Atlantic and Pacific Asia are the earliest adopters |
| R3: Are there characteristics, such as cargo volume thresholds, or a specific cargo mix between gateway (import/export) and sea–sea transshipment flows that are common to all automated terminals? | Terminal throughput (in TEU) | Terminal automation occurs in all terminal scales, and is not the prerogative of 3 million TEU+ terminals (only 30.6% of all automated terminals) |
| Quay length | Average = 1480 m (similar for fully and semi-automated terminals). Std Dev = 769 m for fully automated and 1350 m for semi-automated. Upper value of 5000 m. Less than 1000 m for about one third of all automated terminals | |
| Draft | Ranges from 13.7 to 16 m. Semi-automated terminals: lowest 9 m | |
| Terminal acreage | Average = 98.6 ha (fully automated); 84.1 ha (semi-automated). Std Dev = 80.5 m (fully automated) and 69.4 m (semi-automated). Less than 50 ha for 39% of terminals | |
| Container port scale (in TEU) | 27% of automated terminals in world's top 10 container ports; 70% in world's top 100 container ports | |
| Largest container vessel scale | Automation primarily occurs at terminals which target 10,000 TEU+ vessels; 55.6% of terminals operate in ports receiving containerships larger than 20,000 TEU | |
| Cargo mix (transshipment incidence) | Relation between transshipment incidence and automation is spurious. Only one fully automated terminal is located in an almost pure transshipment hub. Semi-automated terminals are found in pure transshipment ports, mixed ports, and gateway ports, with none of these groups having a dominant presence | |
| R4: How are terminal operators implementing their automation projects, with one or multiple suppliers, and who has integrated the terminal operating systems and equipment? | Test period | Wide variation in the length of the testing period (2 months to 37 months) with no apparent pattern between semi-automated and fully automated terminals; 43% of terminals had a testing period of 6 months or less |
| Automated equipment suppliers | High reliance on multiple equipment suppliers | |
| Integration of equipment and terminal operating system | 75% of the terminal operators integrated the automated equipment by themselves; No correlation between the length of the testing period and whether the automation was implemented by one or more suppliers or whether the automation was implemented by a terminal operator or a supplier | |
| R5: How long before a terminal operator realizes a return on investment? | Return on investment | > 6 years = 61% of terminals; 5–6 years = 29%; no discernable difference between automated and semi-automated terminals |