Table 5.
Summary of study underwater kick performance variables data most frequently correlated with velocity
| References | Participants | UUS Velocity (m s−1) | Kick Frequency (Hz) | Kick Amplitude (m) | Vertical Toe Velocity (m s−1) | Knee Angular Velocity (° s−1) | Knee Range of Motion (°) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Body position | |||||||
| Alves et al. [6] | 6 junior national swimmers |
Prone: 1.46 ± 0.15 Dorsal: 1.42 ± 0.21 Lateral: 1.27 ± 0.11 |
Prone: 2.35 ± 0.27 Dorsal: 2.30 ± 0.33 Lateral: 2.08 ± 0.36 |
Prone: 0.50 ± 0.06 Dorsal: 0.55 ± 0.08 Lateral: 0.59 ± 0.09 |
Prone Knee Flex: 119.34 ± 3.70 Dorsal Knee Flex: 120.72 ± 13.05 Lateral Knee Flex: 107.73 ± 8.68 |
||
| Arellano et al. [33]1999 | 11 national swimmers (M) |
Prone: 1.69 Dorsal: 1.67 |
2.22 2.25 |
Prone: DK: 169.18 UK: 171.00 Dorsal: DK: 118.27 UK: 114.27 |
|||
| Horizontal distance from starting block | |||||||
| de Jesus et al. [35] | 4 international swimmers |
BSFI 1st 4 kick cycles: 1.47 ± 0.11 Last 4 kick cycles: 1.28 ± 0.07 |
2.42 ± 0.15 2.33 ± 0.19 |
0.61 ± 0.07 0.55 ± 0.05 |
|||
|
BSFE 1st 4 kick cycles: 1.44 ± 0.04 Last 4 kick cycles: 1.30 ± 0.04 |
2.41 ± 0.20 2.39 ± 0.24 |
0.60 ± 0.06 0.55 ± 0.07 |
|||||
| Houel et al. [36] | 12 national swimmers |
At 5.5 m: 2.18 ± 0.21 At 7.5 m: 1.76 ± 0.15 |
At 7.5 m: 2.32 ± 0.21 | At 7.5 m: 0.71 ± 0.60 | |||
| Houel and Elipot [37] | 10 national swimmers |
At 6 m: 1.99 ± 0.13 At 6.5 m: 1.93 ± 0.14 At 7 m: 1.74 ± 0.25 At 7.5 m: 1.76 ± 0.17 |
At 7.5 m: 2.32 ± 0.22 | At 7.5 m: 0.71 ± 0.60 | |||
| Level of swimmer | |||||||
| Connaboy et al. [34] | 17 national swimmers (8 M, 9F) | 1.20 ± 0.13 | 2.13 ± 0.23 |
Hip: 0.13 ± 0.03 Knee: 0.27 ± 0.04 Ankle: 0.46 ± 0.06 5th MPJ: 0.61 ± 0.07 |
702.7 ± 82.9 | 89.6 ± 6.9 | |
| Higgs et al. [15] | 7 national swimmers (7 M, 3F) |
DK: 0.58 ± 0.09 UK: 0.58 ± 0.09 |
− 3.61 ± 0.63 4.10 ± 0.63 |
260.0 ± 28.9 − 190.1 ± 43.6 |
|||
| Hochstein and Blickhan [7] | 2 national swimmers (F) |
Subject 1: 1.22 ± 0.06 Subject 2: 1.18 ± 0.06 |
1.98 ± 0.10 2.13 ± 0.10 |
0.54 ± 0.04 0.52 ± 0.03 |
|||
| Hochstein and Blickhan [17] |
4 national swimmers (F) 6 regional club swimmers (3 M, 3F) |
1.23 ± 0.04 1.09 ± 0.13 |
Toe: 0.22 ± 0.01 Toe: 0.24 ± 0.06 |
||||
| Ikeda et al. [41] | 9 swimmers (M) | 1.75 ± 0.16 | 2.37 ± 0.23 | 109.0 ± 10.8 (min) | |||
| Shimojo et al. [16] | 10 national swimmers (M) | 1.60 ± 0.12 | 2.26 ± 0.16 | ||||
| Shimojo et al. [16] | 1 national swimmer (M) | 1.14 ± SD to 1.30 ± SD across 41 trials | 0.70 ± 0.04 to 0.74 ± 0.02 across 41 trials | ||||
| Shimojo et al. [48] |
Experiment 1 17 national swimmers (9 M, 8F) |
1.33 ± 0.19 | 1.65 ± 0.18 | 0.57 ± 0.06 | |||
|
Experiment 2 1 national swimmer (M) | |||||||
| Wang and Liu [39] |
10 international swimmers 10 regional club swimmers |
3.34 ± 0.51 2.10 ± 1.22 |
Significantly greater in international team than regional club level (no numerical data provided) | ||||
| Willems et al. [24] | 26 national swimmers (15 M, 11F) | 1.64 ± 0.20 | 2.08 ± 0.40 | ||||
| Yamakawa et al. [40] | 8 national swimmers (F) | 1.35 ± 0.08 | 1.99 ± 0.15 | 0.48 ± 0.05 |
DK: − 1.91 ± 0.14 UK: 1.68 ± 0.20 |
||
| Yamakawa et al. [49] | 8 national swimmers (M) | 1.19 ± 0.09 | 1.59 ± 0.23 | 0.31 ± 0.07 |
DK: 390.8 ± 59.8 UK: − 504.0 ± 67.9 |
73.3 ± 6.6 | |
UUS undulatory underwater kick, UK up kick, DK down kick, M male, F female, BSFE backstroke start with feet emerged, BSFI backstroke start with feet immerged