FIGURE 2.

Potential ocular toxicity of nanoparticle and its mechanism. Nanoparticles (inner ring) include gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO₂NPs), titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs), zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs), silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiNPs), and other nanoparticles exert potential ocular toxicity (core). These ocular toxicities are mainly associated with dry eye, retinal disease, abnormal retinal development, and lens vacuolation. The main mechanisms of toxicity (outer ring) include mitochondrial damage, oxidative stress, chromosomal aberration, DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and lipid peroxidation. These damages eventually lead to apoptosis.