Table 1.

Common behavioral signs and triggers of stress in cats.

Acute or prolonged stress	Behavioral signs		Triggers
Acute stress	Anxious posture, shaking, fast ventilation, fully dilated pupil and flattened ears, tail close to the body, plaintive vocalization (24–27), struggle, motor activity and aggression (27–29), hiding attempt (8–11) Reduced activity level and diversity, including play, exploration, and maintenance behavior such as feeding, drinking, and elimination (25, 26, 30, 31), reduced social affiliation and facial marking (22, 32), occurrence of feigned sleep (33, 34), increased vigilance (35),		Bath (36, 37) Hospital visit (38–40), handling and restraint practices (28, 29) Confinement (27, 41) Novel environment (e.g., entering shelter) (21, 42, 43) New socialization, such as group housing (21, 42)
Prolonged/chronic stress	Sickness behavior, (e.g., vomiting)		Changed caretaking routine (24, 32, 33, 44)
	Anorexia		Long-term sheltering (31)
	House soiling problem (45, 46)	In appropriate elimination (1, 47)	Social conflict, blocked access to the litterbox (1), changes related to litter (47, 48) Chronic disease, such as feline idiopathic cystitis (49)
		Fecal marking (1)	Outdoor and indoor social conflicts (1)
		Urine marking (1, 50)	Lower urinary tract disorders (51), substantial changes in the social and physical environment (1, 49, 50, 52)
	Depression-like symptom (e.g., inactivity)		Long-term sheltering (53)
	Aggression (2, 54–56)		Social conflicts (2, 54, 57), high housing density (43), co-residence with dogs (58) and other cats (59), long-term sheltering (53)
	Stereotypic behavior (e.g., over grooming or self-mutilation, tail biting, and obsessive vocalization) (60, 61)		Stress from chronic disease, environmental and social conflict (1, 60, 61) Frustration from limited outdoor access (58, 61, 62)