FIGURE 4.

Mitochondria changes in RPE cell death induced by different stressors: A2E and blue light lead to fragmented mitochondria, imbalanced mitochondrial fusion/fission, decreased ATP level, increased ROS level and release of cytochrome C which then induce apoptosis; UV and menadione cause mitochondrial membrane damage, fragmented mitochondria, increased ROS level and release of cytochrome C which then induce apoptosis; H₂O₂, tBHP and NaIO₃ cause fragmented mitochondria and damaged mitochondrial network, and lead to necrosis. NaIO₃ also induces decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased ROS level, and leads to ferroptosis. High glucose induces mitochondrial membrane damage, fragmented mitochondria and cause ferroptosis; Auranofin causes decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, fragmented, vesiculated and damaged mitochondria, increased ROS level and decreased ATP level which lead to pyroptosis. A2E: N-retinylidene-N-retinyl-ethanolamine; UV: ultraviolet; H₂O₂: hydrogen peroxide; tBHP: tert-butyl hydroperoxide; NaIO₃: sodium iodate; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; ROS: reactive oxygen species; ΔΨm: mitochondrial membrane potential.