. 2021 Sep 10;128(3):389–406. doi: 10.1017/S0007114521003524

Table 1.

Summary of the reported health benefits of rare sugar consumption (including only studies reporting significant results)^§

Observed effect of rare sugar	Human studies				Animal studies
Observed effect of rare sugar	Subjects with T2D, hyperglycaemia or obesity		Healthy subjects		Animal models of metabolic disease		Normal animals
Reduced PEBG	PSI	Hayashi 2010⁽²⁸⁾	PSI	Matsuo 2011⁽³⁰⁾ ^*,^†	PSI	Hossain 2011⁽⁴³⁾, 2012⁽⁵⁹⁾,	SOR	Oku 2014⁽²⁵⁾
		Noronha 2018⁽²⁹⁾		Yamada 2018⁽³¹⁾ ^*,^†		Iwasaki 2018⁽⁵¹⁾	SOR	Oku 2014⁽²⁵⁾
	TAG	Kwak 2013⁽³³⁾		Iida 2008⁽³²⁾ ^†		Pongkan 2020⁽⁶⁴⁾	RSS	Shintani 2017⁽⁷⁴⁾
	TAG		RSS	Nakamura 2017⁽³⁴⁾ ^*,^†		Pongkan 2020⁽⁶⁴⁾	RSS	Shintani 2017⁽⁷⁴⁾
Improved long-term glycaemic control	TAG	Ensor 2014⁽³⁸⁾, 2015⁽⁴⁰⁾			PSI	Baek 2010⁽⁵⁸⁾	PSI	Iida 2013⁽⁶⁶⁾ ^‡
						Do 2019⁽⁴¹⁾ ^‡
						Han 2016⁽⁴²⁾
						Hossain 2011⁽⁴³⁾. 2012⁽⁵⁹⁾. 2015⁽⁶⁰⁾
Reduced body weight	PSI	Han 2018⁽³⁶⁾	RSS	Hayashi 2014⁽³⁹⁾ ^‡	PSI	Han 2016⁽⁴²⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁴⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁵⁾ ^‡	PSI	Huang 2018⁽⁷⁶⁾ ^†
		Donner 2010⁽³⁷⁾				Baek 2010⁽⁵⁸⁾		Nagata 2015⁽⁶⁵⁾ ^*,^‡
	TAG	Ensor 2014⁽³⁸⁾				Choi 2018⁽⁷¹⁾ ^*,^‡		Yagi 2009⁽⁵⁴⁾
						Chung 2012⁽⁷²⁾	RSS	Iida 2013⁽⁶⁶⁾ ^‡
						Do 2019⁽⁴¹⁾ ^‡		Shintani 2017⁽⁷⁴⁾
						Hossain 2011⁽⁴³⁾, 2012⁽⁵⁹⁾	ALL	Iga 2010⁽⁶⁷⁾
						Itoh 2015⁽⁴⁶⁾
						Kim 2017⁽⁷³⁾ ^‡
						Ochiai 2013⁽⁶²⁾
						Hossain 2015⁽⁶⁰⁾
					TAG	Williams 2015⁽⁹¹⁾ ^*,^‡
Reduced body fat	PSI	Han 2018⁽³⁶⁾	RSS	Hayashi 2014⁽³⁹⁾ ^‡	PSI	Han 2020⁽⁴⁴⁾ ^‡	PSI	Chen 2017⁽⁴⁸⁾ ^,^‡,^†, Chen 2019⁽⁴⁹⁾ ^,^‡
						Choi 2018⁽⁷¹⁾ ^*,^‡
						Hossain 2011⁽⁴³⁾
						Itoh 2015⁽⁴⁶⁾
						Kim 2017⁽⁷³⁾ ^‡
						Ochiai 2013⁽⁶²⁾
					RSS	Ochiai 2017⁽⁶³⁾ ^*,^‡
Improved plasma lipid profile	TAG	Ensor 2015⁽⁴⁰⁾			PSI	Han 2016⁽⁴²⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁴⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁵⁾ ^‡	PSI	Chen 2017⁽⁴⁸⁾ ^,^‡,^†, Chen 2019⁽⁴⁹⁾ ^,^‡
						Baek 2010⁽⁵⁸⁾
						Choi 2018⁽⁷¹⁾ ^*,^‡
						Do 2019⁽⁴¹⁾ ^‡
						Ochiai 2013⁽⁶²⁾
						Hossain 2015⁽⁶⁰⁾
						Kim 2017⁽⁷³⁾ ^‡
						Kanasaki 2019⁽⁶¹⁾ ^*,^‡
					TAG	Williams 2015⁽⁹¹⁾ ^*,^‡
Reduced hepatic lipid accumulation					PSI	Han 2016⁽⁴²⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁴⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁵⁾ ^‡	PSI	Chen 2019⁽⁴⁹⁾ ^*,^‡
						Do 2019⁽⁴¹⁾ ^‡
						Hossain 2011⁽⁴³⁾
						Itoh 2015⁽⁴⁶⁾
					ALL	Yamamoto 2017⁽²⁷⁾
Improved gut microbiome					PSI	Han 2020⁽⁴⁴⁾ ^‡, 2020⁽⁴⁵⁾ ^‡
Improved gut microbiome					TAG	Son 2019⁽⁴⁷⁾
Reduced inflammation					PSI	Han 2020⁽⁴⁵⁾ ^‡
Reduced inflammation					TAG	Son 2019⁽⁴⁷⁾
Improved oxidative status					PSI	Pratchayasakul 2020⁽⁵⁰⁾ ^†	PSI	Chen 2017⁽⁴⁸⁾ ^,^‡,^†, Chen 2019⁽⁴⁹⁾ ^,^‡

PEBG, postprandial elevation of blood glucose.

Indicates studies in which there was a possible energy deficit in the experimental group.

^‡

Indicates studies in which the rare sugar replaced another carbohydrate in the experimental diet.

^†

Indicates studies available as abstracts only.

^§

Studies reporting inconclusive or non-significant results have not been included.