Table 3.

Lesion topography and respective associated time perception deficits.

Lesion location	Time perception deficit associated
Cerebellar hemisphere	Underestimation, overproduction of time intervals between 2–12 sec; worse in left cerebellar hemisphere lesions (21) Impaired interval reproduction in the seconds range (22, 23) Impairment in perceptual timing (24, 25)
Right supramarginal gyrus (including involvement of right basal ganglia, insula and superior temporal gyrus)	Underestimation of time duration for intervals of 15–60s (worse on neglect patients) (26)
Prefrontal cortex	Increased difference thresholds in time perception tasks (24, 25); worse performance with dual tasking (divided attention) (25) Underestimation of time interval comparison (24) Underestimation of time duration for long time durations (>90 s) (27) Impairment in time interval comparison (right prefrontal cortex) (28)
Right temporal-occipital region (including thalamus and posterior arm of internal capsule)	Overestimation of time duration of stimuli on left hemifield (29)
Diffuse right hemispheric lesion	Slower timing responses in temporal order judgment (neglect patients) (30) Impairment in clock-time estimation and interview duration estimation (31) Overestimation of time intervals (32–35) Underproduction of time intervals (32) Undereproduction of time intervals (33) Underestimation of duration of time intervals (36, 37) Impairment in time interval comparison (28, 34, 35)
Diffuse left hemispheric lesion	Overestimation, underproduction of time intervals (32) Overestimation of time intervals (33) Underestimation of time intervals (33, 37)
Thalamus	Temporal disorientation, impaired estimation of day time and impaired estimation of the examination duration (38–40) Impairment of time interval reproduction (39, 41) Impaired estimation of time interval duration (40, 41)
Basal ganglia	Overestimation in time interval comparison in 300 ms range (42) Impairment on time reproduction in 50 ms range (42)
Right insula	Underestimation of time duration for short time intervals (43) Impairment in perceptual timing (43)
Parietal lobe (left medial, lateral and superior parietal lobe, intraparietal sulcus with extension to temporal region)	Underestimation of time intervals with task-irrelevant numerical stimuli; near chance performance of interval comparison of visual stimuli with numeral stimuli (36)
Right temporoparietal junction	Underestimated leftward motion duration in comparison with rightward motion duration when patients had impaired spatial orientation (44)
Right parietal lobe (including fronto-parietal subcortical white matter)	Underestimation of time duration on different protocols in 15–60 s interval (45)
Right inferior parietal cortex (including rolandic operculum and posterior middle temporal gyrus)	Impairment in prospective timing (46)
Right superior temporal gyrus, white matter posterior to the insula and posterior insula	Impairment in retrospective timing (46)
Posterior supramarginal white matter	Impaired time estimation (33)
Frontal lobe	Impairment in perceptual timing (47)
Posterior parietal lobe	Impairment in perceptual timing (47)
Right precentral, middle frontal and inferior frontal gyrus	Impairment in perceptual timing under and above 1 second (47)
Left basal ganglia, superior and middle temporal lobe and hippocampus	Impairment in perceptual timing under 1 second (47)

Times deficits regarding production relate to the ability of patients being able to produce a time interval without any kind of referential or previous cue, only using an internal representation of time; time deficits regarding reproduction relate to the ability of patients being able to reproduce faithfully a previously shown/heard time interval. Impairments in perceptual timing concern abnormal capability in time accuracy in different modalities, when compared to controls (e.g., more prone to under and overestimation or under and overproduction than healthy controls).