Figure 4.

Antifouling and biocidal mechanisms of nanomaterials. (A) Steric repulsion: nanomaterials incorporated with the coating surfaces that provide physical berries to microbes, proteins, and cells. (B) Electrostatic repulsion: prevent the attachment of pathogens due to charges on the coating surfaces. (C) Low surface energy: reduction of external bacterial adhesion. (D) Releasing of biocide: start killing the microbes by the release of silver ions and nitric oxide. (E) Contact-active: kill multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens upon contact with the coatings.