TABLE 3.
Summary of the oral intake of vinegar studies design, participant and intervention characteristics and outcome analyzed1
| Reference | Study design | Health status | Sample size (Male/Female) | Age, years | BMI, kg/m2 | Amount | Type of vinegar | Acetic acid, % | Duration | Coingested with CHO, g | Control | Outcomes analyzed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acute | ||||||||||||
| Brighenti et al., 1995 (29) | RCT, XO | HV | 5 (4/1) | 37 | 98 | 20 ml | White (acetic acid from vinegar) | 5 | 95 min | 50 | White Bread | PBG |
| Johnston et al., 2004 (43) | RCT, XO | HV | 8 | NI | NI | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 60 minutes | 87 | Placebo drink (not specified) | PBG PI |
| Johnston et al., 2004-study a (43) | RCT, XO | T2D | 11 | NI | NI | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 60 minutes | 87 | Placebo drink (not specified) | PBG PI |
| Johnston et al., 2004-study b (43) | RCT, XO | IR | 10 | NI | NI | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 60 minutes | 87 | Placebo drink (not specified) | PBG PI |
| Johnston and Buller, 2005-study a (30) | RCT, XO | HV | 11 (1/10) | 27.9 | 22.7 | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 60 minutes | 87 | Sweetened water | PBG PI |
| Johnston and Buller, 2005-study b (30) | RCT, XO | HV | 11 (1/10) | 27.9 | 22.7 | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 60 minutes | 52 | Sweetened water | PBG PI |
| Leeman et al., 2005 (42) | RCT, XO | HV | 13 (3/10) | 19–32 | 22.5 | 28 g | White | 6 | 120 minutes | 50 | Boiled potatoes | PBG PI |
| Östman et al., 2005 (40) | RCT, XO | HV | 12 (10/2) | 22.9 | 21.5 | 28 g | White | 6 | 120 minutes | 50 | White bread | PBG PI |
| Hlebowicz et al., 2008 (39) | RCT, XO | HV | 13 (6/7) | 25 | 22.8 | 28 g | White wine | 5 | 120 minutes | 50 | White bread | PBG |
| Mettler et al., 2009 (38) | RCT, XO | HV | 27 (9/18) | 26 | 22.5 | 28 g | NI | NI | 120 minutes | 75 | Vanilla milk rice + cinnamon | PBG |
| Johnston et al., 2010-study 1 (31) | RCT, XO | HV | 10 (4/6) | 35 | 27.5 | 2–20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 120 minutes | 0 | 0 g acetic acid drink | PBG |
| Johnston et al., 2010-study 2a(31) | RCT, XO | HV | 9 (2/7) | 50 | 33.7 | 20 g | Raspberry | 5 | 120 minutes | 75 | Placebo (not specified) | PBG |
| Johnston et al., 2010-study 3 (31) | RCT, XO | HV | 10 (2/8) | 38 | 26.3 | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 120 minutes | 75 | Placebo (not specified) | PBG |
| Johnston et al., 2010-study 4 (31) | RCT, XO | T2D | 9 (4/5) | 69 | 31.4 | 20 g | Apple cider | 5 | 120 minutes | 75 | Placebo (not specified) | PBG |
| Liatis et al., 2010-study a (32) | RCT, XO | T2D | 8 (3/5) | 57.4 | 29.8 | 20 g | Wine (high glycemic index 86/100) | 6 | 120 minutes | 51 | High glycemic meal | PBG PI |
| Liatis et al., 2010-studyb (32) | RCT, XO | T2D | 8 (4/4) | 61.4 | 30.1 | 20 g | Wine (low glycemic index 38/100) | 6 | 120 minutes | 52 | Low glycemic meal | PBG PI |
| Darzi et al., 2014-study 1 (33) | RCT, XO | HV | 16 (3/13) | 22.2 | 22.1 | 30 g | White wine (palatable) | 6 | 180 minutes | 94.5 | 75 g of sugar-free squash | PBG |
| Darzi et al., 2014-study 2 (33) | RCT, XO | HV | 14 (6/8) | 27.5 | 22.7 | 30 g | White wine | 6 | 180 minutes | 60 | Water | PBG |
| Mitrou et al., 2015-study a (45) | RCT, XO | T2D | 11 (4/7) | 53.0 | 25.0 | 30 ml | NI | 6 | 300 minutes | 75 | Water | PBG PI muscle glucose uptake |
| Mitrou et al., 2015-study b (44) | RCT, XO | IGT | 8 (4/4) | 46.0 | 30.0 | 30 ml | Wine | 6 | 300 minutes | 75 | Water | PBG PI Muscle glucose uptake |
| Feise and Johnston, 2020-study a (34) | XO | HV | 12 (5/7) | 22.6 | 21.2 | 25 g | Liquid vinegar | 5 | 60 minutes | 64 | Water | PBG |
| Feise and Johnston, 2020-study b (34) | XO | HV | 12 (5/7) | 22.6 | 21.2 | 25 g | Vinegar pills | 5 | 60 minutes | 64 | Water | PBG |
| Feise and Johnston, 2020-study c (34) | XO | HV | 12 (5/7) | 22.6 | 21.2 | 25 g | Crushed vinegar pills | 5 | 60 minutes | 64 | Water | PBG |
| Zhao et al., 2020 (41) | RCT, XO | HV | 15 (0/15) | 23.6 | 20.3 | 30 g | Black rice | 5 | 200 minutes | 35 | White rice, dried apple | PBG |
| Chronic | ||||||||||||
| White and Johnston, 2007 (51) | XO | T2D | 11 (4/7) | 40–72 | 29.1 | 30 ml | Apple cider | 0.002 | 2 days | Usual diet | Water | FBG |
| Hosseini et al., 2011 (49) | Parallel | T2D | 30 (15/15) | 30–60 | NI | 15 ml | Vinegar | NI | 4 weeks | Usual diet | Water | FBG HbA1c |
| Derakhshandeh-Rishehri et al.,2014 (48) | RCT, parallel | HV | 72 (32/40) | 31.6 | 25.3; 22.8 | 21.66 g | Honey | NI | 4 weeks | Usual diet | Normal diet | FBG FI HOMA-IR |
| Ali et al., 2019 (50) | RCT, parallel | T2D | 55 (26/29) | 30–60 | NI | 20 ml | Dates | NI | 10 weeks | Usual diet | Honey in water | FBG HbA1c |
| Gheflati et al., 2019 (46) | RCT, parallel | T2D | 62 (20/42) | 49.5; 52.1 | 29.0; 28.9 | 20 ml | Apple | 5 | 8 weeks | Usual diet | Normal diet | FBG FI HOMA-IR QUICKI |
| Jasbi et al., 2019 (47) | RCT, parallel | HV | 45 (41/4) | 29.6; 30.1 | 27.8; 28.5 | 60 ml | Red wine | 6 | 8 weeks | Usual diet | Apple cider vinegar tablet | FBG FI HOMA-IR |
1
Abbreviations: CHO, carbohydrate; FBG, fasting blood glucose; FI, fasting insulin; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HV, healthy volunteers; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; IR, insulin resistant; NI, no information; PBG, postprandial blood glucose; PI, postprandial insulin; QUICKI, Quantitative Insulin-Sensitivity Check Index; RCT, randomized controlled trial; T2D, type 2 diabetes; XO, crossover.