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A schematic view of the roles of AECs, immune cells and fibroblasts. (A) Alveolar epithelial cells/endothelial cells participate in IPF via ER stress/UPR, EMT, coagulation cascade, and the secretion of a variety of signaling factors. (B) The balance of Th1/Th2 and M1/M2. (C) The sources of fibroblasts and the fibroblast-to-myofibroblasts differentiation.
