Table 1. Summary of Nontraditional Source Waters and Corresponding Opportunities for Mining of H2.
| water source | typical water flow rate per site (m3 yr–1) | H2 produced (kg yr–1)a | H2 energy (kWh yr–1)b | water purification cost ($ m–3)c |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| seawater | 5.17 × 10627,28 | 2.59 × 108 | 3.41–5.11 × 109 | 2.84 |
| household water (public supply) | 4.15 × 10229 | 2.08 × 104 | 2.73–4.10 × 105 | 2.64 |
| municipal wastewater | 3.18 × 10630,31 | 1.59 × 108 | 2.10–3.14 × 109 | 2.64 |
| industrial/textile wastewater | 3.36 × 10632 | 1.68 × 108 | 2.21–3.32 × 109 | 2.67 |
| industrial/concrete wastewater | 5.30 × 10533 | 2.65 × 107 | 3.49–5.23 × 108 | 2.65 |
| industrial/semiconductor wastewater | 5.53 × 10634 | 2.77 × 108 | 3.64–5.47 × 109 | 2.64 |
| CO2 geologic storage produced water | 6.74 × 10619 | 3.37 × 102 | 4.44–6.66 × 109 | 3.79 |
| brackish groundwater | 6.72 × 10635 | 3.36 × 108 | 4.43–6.65 × 109 | 2.66 |
| resource extraction wastewater | 5.67 × 10920 | 2.84 × 1011 | 3.73–5.60 × 1012 | 4.88 |
a
Assuming conversion ratio of 10 L of water to 1 kg of H2.
b
Assuming 40–60% fuel cell efficiency.
c
Assuming ASTM Type II water production via reverse osmosis followed by ion-exchange resin, excluding pretreatment.