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. 2022 Aug 4;9:475. doi: 10.1038/s41597-022-01564-3

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Illustration of fundus photographs and the challenges of retinal vessel segmentation: (a) A normal high-quality fundus image, with the corresponding segmentation result shown in a detailed view. (b) A child’s fundus image showing the retinal nerve fibers blocking the view of the connections between vessels. (c) An elderly person’s fundus image showing a tessellated retina, which can be misrecognized as vessels. (d) A fundus image showing pathological changes related to diabetic retinopathy. (e) A fundus image with poor focus. (f) A fundus image with insufficient exposure.