Table 3.
Comparison of outcome variables between groups and effect size of the intervention over the study period (N = 128)
| Variables | Control group* (N = 64) |
Intervention group* (N = 64) |
Between-group p value | Effect size (Cohen’s d/φ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HbA1c (%) | ||||
| Baseline | 6.86 ± 1.34 | 6.66 ± 1.09 | 0.368 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 6.97 ± 1.18 | 6.57 ± 0.84 | 0.041 | 0.39 |
| Diabetes self-management behaviors (SDSCA) | ||||
| General diet | ||||
| Baseline | 5.04 ± 2.07 | 5.36 ± 1.80 | 0.361 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 5.44 ± 1.16 | 5.78 ± 1.10 | 0.102 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 5.30 ± 1.17 | 5.88 ± 0.94 | 0.005 | 0.55 |
| Specific diet regarding intake of fruits and vegetables | ||||
| Baseline | 4.28 ± 2.60 | 4.30 ± 2.54 | 0.965 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 4.13 ± 2.23 | 5.12 ± 1.69 | 0.008 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 4.08 ± 2.07 | 5.07 ± 1.67 | 0.007 | 0.53 |
| Specific diet regarding intake of high fat foods | ||||
| Baseline | 3.89 ± 2.29 | 4.00 ± 2.46 | 0.797 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 4.00 ± 1.53 | 4.90 ± 1.81 | 0.005 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 4.10 ± 1.33 | 4.62 ± 1.56 | 0.066 | 0.36 |
| Physical activity | ||||
| Baseline | 5.02 ± 2.21 | 4.85 ± 2.18 | 0.673 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 5.17 ± 1.88 | 5.10 ± 1.93 | 0.826 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 4.92 ± 1.76 | 5.04 ± 1.73 | 0.721 | 0.07 |
| Blood glucose monitoring | ||||
| Baseline | 3.10 ± 2.18 | 2.91 ± 2.33 | 0.643 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 3.09 ± 2.08 | 3.14 ± 2.19 | 0.895 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 2.89 ± 1.82 | 3.30 ± 2.08 | 0.273 | 0.21 |
| Foot care | ||||
| Baseline | 3.59 ± 2.66 | 3.42 ± 2.74 | 0.719 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 3.46 ± 2.35 | 5.25 ± 1.99 | < 0.001 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 3.47 ± 2.27 | 5.46 ± 1.69 | < 0.001 | 0.99 |
| Smoking status (non-smoker to smoker ratio) | ||||
| Baseline | 43:21 | 46:18 | 0.565 | |
| T1 follow-up | 39:17 | 47:13 | 0.285 | |
| T2 follow-up | 40:14 | 49:8 | 0.116 | 0.149 |
| Medication management | ||||
| Baseline | 4.84 ± 3.01 | 5.44 ± 2.71 | 0.248 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 4.68 ± 3.04 | 6.22 ± 1.78 | 0.001 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 4.61 ± 3.02 | 6.18 ± 1.85 | 0.002 | 0.63 |
| Self-efficacy (DMSES) | ||||
| Baseline | 153.32 ± 37.62 | 147.90 ± 36.53 | 0.420 | – |
| T1 follow-up | 154.44 ± 31.99 | 157.29 ± 30.16 | 0.625 | – |
| T2 follow-up | 150.17 ± 32.75 | 155.52 ± 28.95 | 0.368 | 0.17 |
Note: p value: the probability of a true null hypothesis; Cohen’s d: effect size for continuous variables; φ: phi, effect size for categorical variables; HbA1c Glycated Hemoglobin A, SDSCA Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities, DMSES Diabetes Management Self-Efficacy Scale. *: in mean ± standard deviation unless specified