TABLE 4.

Current research achievements of PLGA Micro/nanoparticle delivery systems for treating drug-resistant tuberculosis

Carrier	Drug	Method	Size	Results	References
PLGA nanoparticles	Ethionamide	Solvent evaporation	286 nm	There was no significant drug-polymer interaction, and the ethionamide-loaded nanoparticles have no treatment-related toxic effect, which can release sustained for up to 15 days in vitro.	Kumar et al. (2011a)
PLGA nanoparticles	Ethionamide	Solvent evaporation	286 nm	When compared to the free drug, the ethionamide-loaded nanoparticles sustained the release of ethionamide for a longer period with significant improvement in pharmacokinetic parameters	Kumar et al. (2011b)
PLGA nanoparticles	Rifapentine	Premix membrane homogenization, solvent evaporation	150 nm	Rifapentine -loaded nps were more effective against M. tuberculosis than free RPT.	Liang et al. (2020)
PLGA nanoparticles	Isoniazid, Mycolic acids	Double emulsion solvent evaporation	∼250 nm	The inclusion of mycolic acids in the nanoformulations resulted in their expression on the outer surface and a significant increase in phagocytic uptake of the nanoparticles	Lemmer et al. (2015)
			∼900 nm
PLGA nanoparticles	Moxifloxacin	Emulsion-evaporation	112 nm	Moxifloxacin-PEG-WSC nps presented striking prolongation in blood circulation, reduced protein binding, and long-drawn-out the blood circulation half-life with resultant reduced liver sequestration vis-à-vis MOX-PLGA nps.	Mustafa et al. (2017)
PLGA nanoparticles	Amikacin, Moxifloxacin	Emulsion evaporation	640 nm	The release of alginate modified PLGA nanoparticles showed slower release in comparison with the non-modified PLGA nanoparticles. Furthermore, the anti-mycobacterial activity of the dually entrapped drug-loaded particles (moxifloxacin and amikacin) was higher compared to single drug-loaded nanoparticle formulations	Abdelghany et al. (2019)
			312–365 nm
PLGA nanoparticles	Clofazimine	Nanoprecipitation	311 nm	Clofazimine incorporation into the nps was advantageous to reduce drug cytotoxicity. The tfr-binding peptide-functionalized nps showed superior cell interaction and higher Clofazimine permeability compared to the non-functionalized nanoparticles	de Castro et al. (2021)
PLGA microparticles	Gatifloxacin	Solvent evaporation-extraction	40.3 μm, 1.4 μm	Gatifloxaci-loaded PLGA microparticles exhibited high encapsulation efficiency, adequate particle size for pulmonary administration, were rapidly phagocytosed by macrophages, and remained in their interior for at least 48 h	Marcianes et al. (2020)
PLGA microparticles	—	Double emulsion, solvent evaporation	2.2 μm	Drug-free PLGA microparticles could reduce the bacillary viability of THP-1 macrophages	Lawlor et al. (2016)
PLGA microparticles	Rifampicin, All-trans-Retinoic acid	Spray-drying	∼2 μm	ATRA--PLGA microparticles treatments significantly decreased the bacterial burden in the lungs alongside a reduction in pulmonary pathology following just three doses administered intratracheally.	O’Connor et al. (2019)
PLGA microparticles	Isoniazid, Host defence peptides	Double emulsion-solvent evaporation	∼5 μm	The Mucus-penetrating-microparticles dramatically increased (4.1fold) the particle transit through the mucus barrier, which does not adhere to lung mucus, disrupts the bacterial biofilm and provides uniform drug delivery to lungs after pulmonary delivery.	Sharma et al. (2020)
PLGA nanoparticles	Moxifloxacin	Multiple emulsion and solvent evaporation	299.66 nm	After 8 weeks of oral administration of nanoparticles, cfus in the lungs and spleen were reduced.	Vemuri et al. (2016)
PLGA nanoparticles	Econazole	Multiple emulsion and solvent evaporation	561 nm	After 8 weeks of oral administration of nanoparticles, cfus in the lungs and spleen were reduced.	Vemuri et al. (2016)
PLGA nanoparticles	Ethionamide	Multiple emulsion and solvent evaporation	364 nm	After 8 weeks of oral administration of nanoparticles, cfus in the lungs and spleen were reduced.	Vemuri et al. (2016)
PLGA nanoparticles	Thioridazine	Oil-in-water emulsion	211 nm	The thioridazine nanoparticles had no toxicity, and showed a significant therapeutic effect When combined with rifampicin	Vibe et al. (2016)
PLGA nanoparticles	Isoniazid, Moxifloxacin	single emulsion		An enhanced effect of the two drugs was achieved, when they were delivered inside the nanoparticles formulation achieved better antibacterial activity than the free mixture of the drugs	Moin et al. (2016)
PLGA nanoparticles	Levofloxacin, BM2 aptamer	Double emulsification	273.9 nm	BM2- Levofloxacin nanoparticles could gathered accurately in the lesion tissues, and exhibited an excellent therapeutic effect after exposure to ultrasound.	Li et al. (2021)