Fig. 4.

Interaction between phages and immune system. Phage infection led to the release of PAMPs which translocate the gut epithelium and trigger TLR pathways and induce a transcriptional response in monocytes, MQs, DCs, and particularly improved the transcription of IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. Besides, by inhibiting activation of NF-κB and ROS production, phages can reduce extreme inflammatory reactions. Phages induce antiviral immunity via activating NK cells, TLR3, and TLR-9, and inhibiting TNF-α driving IFN I production. Phages can trigger a strong immune response via activation of Th1 (IFN-γ and TNF-α), Th2 (IL-4, IL,-6 and IL-10) cells, and also B cells. The activation of Th1 generated a CTL response. (Figure has been created in biorender).