Table 1. The toxicities of AFB1 have been reported in vivo.
The hepatotoxicity, enterotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity of AFB1 have been reported in vivo.
| Type of toxicity | Doses | Time | Species | Gender | Route | Solvent | Signaling pathway/Cytokines/ potential target molecule | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hepatoxicity | 1 mg/kg (b.w.) | Every other day for 4 weeks | mice | – | Gavage (i.g.) | corn oil | COX2, p10 and IL1β↑ (protein) | Zhang et al. (2019a) |
| 1 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 4, 6, 10 weeks | rats | male | Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | DMSO | TNFα, IL1α and PCNA ↑ (protein) | Singh, Maurya & Trigun (2015) | |
| 0.375, 0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 30 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | Cyt-c, Bax, p53 and caspase-3/9 ↑ (protein & mRNA) | Xu et al. (2021) | |
| 250 µg/kg (b.w.) | 5 days per week over 4 weeks or 8 weeks | rats | female | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | – | Ali et al. (2021) | |
| 0.25, 0.75, and 1.5 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 7 days | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | corn oil | p53 signaling pathway | Lu et al. (2013) | |
| 150 µg/kg feed | Daily for 14 days | rats | male | Feed | methanol | – | Qian et al. (2016) | |
| 0.32 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 12 days | rats | male | Feed | – | – | Zhang et al. (2011) | |
| 0.25, 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 7 days | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | Ahr, Lipc and Lcat ↓ (protein & mRNA) , Scarb1 ↑ (protein & mRNA) | Rotimi et al. (2017) | |
| 1 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 1, 4 or 7 days | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | Nrf2, Hmgcoa, and Acc ↓ (mRNA) (day 1) | Rotimi et al. (2019) | |
| Enterotoxicity | 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | FAS, FASL, TNFα, TNF-R1, GRP78/94, and caspase-3/8/10 ↑ (mRNA) | Zheng et al. (2017) |
| 0.3 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 28 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | methanol | tight junction proteins (claudin-1, zonula occludens-1) ↓ (immunohistochemical staining) | Gao et al. (2021) | |
| 5, 25, 75 µg /kg (b.w.) | 5 days per week for 4 weeks | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | DMSO | – | Wang et al. (2016a) | |
| 5, 25, 75 µg /kg (b.w.) | 5 days per week for 5 weeks | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | DMSO | – | Zhou, Tang & Wang (2021) | |
| 5 mg/kg feed | Daily for 42 days | broilers | male | Feed | methanol | CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2A6 and CYP3A4 ↑, GSTA3, GSTA4 and EPHX1 ↓ (mRNA) | Wang et al. (2018b) | |
| 22.02 ppb | – | broilers | male | Feed | – | – | Kana, Teguia & Tchoumboue (2010) | |
| 2.91 to 120.02 ug/kg feed | Daily for 0-14 days | ducks | male & female | Feed | Contaminated maize | – | Feng et al. (2017) | |
| 2.03 to 153.12 ug/kg feed | Daily for 15–35 days | ducks | male & female | Feed | Contaminated maize | – | Feng et al. (2017) | |
| 0.07, 0.75 mg/kg feed | Twice a day for 4 weeks | broilers | male | Feed | basal diet | – | Yunus et al. (2011) | |
| 1 ppm | Daily for 28 days | broilers | – | Feed | diet | – | Kumar & Balachandran (2009) | |
| 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | TLR2-2, TLR-4, and TLR7 ↓ (mRNA) | Wang et al. (2018c) | |
| 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | ATM, p53, Chk2 and p21 ↑, Mdm2, cdc25C, cdc2, cyclin B, MDM2 and PCNA ↓ (protein & mRNA) | Yin et al. (2016) | |
| Nephrotoxicity | 300 µg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 30 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | DMSO | – | Huang et al. (2019) |
| 5, 7.5, 10 µg /kg (b.w.) | 8/16/24 h | carp | – | Gavage (i.g.) | feed | Keap1-Nrf2 pathway ↑ (mRNA) | Kövesi et al. (2020) | |
| 0.5 g/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 28 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | 1%DMSO | L-proline ↓ proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and Bax, Caspase-3 ↑, Bcl-2 ↓ (protein & mRNA) | Li et al. (2018) | |
| 40 ppm | Daily for 8 weeks | rats | male | Feed | DMSO | GPx and GSH ↓, PER ↑ (activity) | Rotimi et al. (2018) | |
| Neurotoxicity | 300 µg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 30 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | DMSO | – | Huang et al. (2020) |
| 0.025 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 30 days, 60 days and 90 days | rats | male | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | CAT and SOD ↓, ACP, ALP, AST and LDH ↑ (activity) | Alsayyah et al. (2019) | |
| 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, and 10 µM | 24 /48 h | 24/12 hpf zebrafish embryos | – | – | DMSO | gfap, mbp, and olig2 ↓ (protein), caspase 3a/8/9 and p53 ↑ (mRNA) | Park et al. (2020) | |
| 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 µM | 24 h | 24, 28, 72, and 96 hpf zebrafish embryos | – | – | DMSO | Gly , Glu, and GABA ↑ (Metabolic Profiles) | Zuberi et al. (2019) | |
| 15.75 µg/kg (b.w.) | once weekly for 8 weeks | rats | female | Gavage (i.g.) | olive oil | – | Bahey, Abd Elaziz & Gadalla (2015) | |
| Immunotoxicity | 0.25 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 15 days | mice | female | Gavage (i.g.) | ethanol | IFN-γ and TNFα↓, IL4 ↑ (mRNA) | Jebali et al. (2015) |
| 1 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 4/6/10 weeks | rats | male | Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | DMSO | TNF-α, IL-1α and PCNA ↑ (mRNA) | Qin et al. (2016) | |
| 0.15, 0.3, and 0.6 mg /kg diet | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | GSH-Px, GR, and GSH ↓, MDA ↑ (activity) | Chen et al. (2013) | |
| 385, 867 or 1807 µg/kg feed | Daily for 28 days | pigs | male | Feed | – | TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ and IL10 ↑ (mRNA) | Meissonnier et al. (2008) | |
| 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | Bax, Bak, and cytC ↑, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL ↓, FasL, Fas and FADD ↑ (mRNA) | Peng et al. (2016) | |
| 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | Bax, Bak, cytC, caspase-9, Apaf-1, and caspase-3 ↑, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL ↓, Grp78/Bip, Grp94 and CaM ↑ (mRNA) | Yuan et al. (2016) | |
| 0.6 mg/kg feed | Daily for 21 days | broilers | – | Feed | methanol | ATM-Chk2-cdc25-cyclin B/cdc2 pathway, ATM-Chk2-cdc25-cyclin D/CDK6 pathway and ATM-Chk2-p21-cyclin D/CDK6 pathway | Hu et al. (2018) | |
| 100 ppm | 120 min | rats | male | Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | – | TNF-α↑ (protein) | Mohammad et al. (2017) | |
| 5 mg/kg | 24 h | chicks | – | Gavage (i.g.) | – | MDA ↑, SOD and GSH-PX ↓ (activity), NLRP3, COX-2, iNOS, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, caspase-1, caspase-3, and caspase-11 ↑ (mRNA) | Gao et al. (2022) | |
| Reproductive toxicity | 20 µg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 7/14/21 days | mice | male | Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | corn oil and ethanol (95:5, v/v) | Bcl-2 ↓, Bax, p53, and caspase-3 ↑ (mRNA & protein) | Yasin, Mazdak & Mino (2018) |
| 0.375, 0.75, or 1.5 mg/kg (b.w.) | Daily for 30 days | mice | male | Gavage (i.g.) | corn oil | p38 MAPK signaling pathway, Occludin, N-cadherin, and Connexin 43 ↓, cyt-c and caspase-3 ↑ (protein) | Huang et al. (2021) | |
| 6 mg/kg | 6 h | mice | female | Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | DMSO | CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 ↑, GSTA1/2 ↓ (protein) | Sriwattanapong et al. (2017) | |
| 0.5 and 5 mg/kg feed | Daily for 8 weeks (only for mother) | rats | female | Feed | – | – | Rotimi et al. (2021) | |
| 1.0 mg/kg(b.w.) | 24 h | rams | male | Gavage (i.g.) | 4% ethanol | StAR, 3β-HSD, CYP11A1, and CYP17A1 ↑ (mRNA), Caspase3 ↓, Bax ↑ (mRNA) | Lin et al. (2022) | |
| 100 ppb, 200 ppb, and 400 ppb | Daily for 10 weeks | cockerels | male | Feed | – | IgM and IgG ↓ (antibody titers), LH, prolactin, and testosterone ↓ | Ashraf et al. (2022) |