Table 1.
In vivo and in vitro studies in oral biofilm treatments.
| Type | Method | Outcomes | Year/Ref |
|---|---|---|---|
| Herbal materials | |||
| Apple-boysenberry beverage | Quantitation of Lactobacillus spp., A. naeslundii, and S. mutans in saliva samples using qPCR | The bioactive beverage reduced the proliferation of Actinomyces and Streptococci down to almost half. | 2017/ [115] |
| Cranberry proanthocyanidins | The antibiofilm and anticaries effects of proanthocyanidin's against S. mutans was assessed in vitro and in vivo, respectively. | Proanthocyanidin treatment inhibited smooth-surface caries in rats. | 2010/ [80] |
| Toothpaste and mouth rinse containing natural/herbal agents | Six commercially available products were compared to PBS as control on artificial plaque in animal model. | Four mouth rinses (Tom's Propolis & Myrrh®, Colgate Total 12® toothpaste, Malvatricin® Plus, and PerioGard®) significantly reduced the biofilm viability. | 2019/ [116] |
| Zingiber officinale | The crude and methanolic extracts of ginger were evaluated at sub-MIC levels on S. mutans caries in vitro and in vivo. | Both extracts showed strong anticariogenic effect. | 2015/ [117] |
| Roselle calyx | The antibacterial activity of the herbal extract was studied on eight oral bacterial strains in vitro. | The extract showed antibacterial activity especially against F. nucleatum, P. intermedia, and P. gingivalis. | 2016/ [118] |
| Terebinthifolius and Croton urucurana | The antiadherent and antibiofilm potentials of plants were studied in vitro by evaluating their minimal concentration of adherence (MICA). | Both herbal extracts inhibited S. mutans and C. albicans from forming biofilm. | 2014/ [119] |
| Garlic | The MIC of garlic extract against S. mutans was studied in vitro. | Garlic extract increased the biofilm formation of S. mutans on the orthodontic wires. | 2011/ [120] |
| Limonoids | The antibiofilm activity of limonoids against Vibrio harveyi was evaluated in vitro. | Limonoids showed significant modulatory functions interfering with biofilm formation. | 2011/ [73] |
| Hordenine | The inhibitory activity of hordenine against quorum sensing was studied using high-resolution microscopy and RT-PCR. | Hordenine inhibited quorum sensing of foodborne pathogens by competing with their signaling molecules. | 2018/ [74] |
| Quercetin | The effect of quercetin on P. aeruginosa biofilm and virulence factors was studied in vitro. | Quercetin effectively inhibited the biofilm formation and reduced P. aeruginosa virulence. | 2016/ [75] |
| Red wine Dealcoholized red wine Red wine extract (with or without grape seed) |
The effect of seed extract on an oral supragingival plaque model was studied in vitro and using high-resolution microscopy. | Solutions spiked with seed extract showed antimicrobial effect on 3 of 5 studied strains (F. nucleatum, S. oralis, and A. oris). Red wine and dealcoholized wine showed antimicrobial effects on 2 strains (F. nucleatum and S. oralis). | 2014/ [121] |
| Myristica fragrans | MIC and MBC tests were performed using the ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts of seed and mace of plant in vitro. | The ethanol extract of the plant displayed better antimicrobial potential compared to the ethyl acetate extracts. | 2012/ [122] |
| Olea europaea, Inula viscosa, and mastic gum | MIC and the MBC assays were performed against oral microbiota (10 bacteria and 1 yeast) in vitro. | The most considerable antimicrobial effect belonged to the ethyl acetate extract of I. viscosa and the total extract of mastic gum. | 2014/ [123] |
| The essential oils of Citrus limonum and Citrus aurantium | The antibiofilm effect was studied in vitro against C. albicans, E. faecalis, and E. coli. | Both essential oils displayed antibiofilm effects against all species. | 2014/ [124] |
| The commercially available essential oils of 15 plants | MIC and MBC test against a panel of oral bacteria was performed in vitro. | The essential oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum displayed a moderate antimicrobial effect on Fusobacterium nucleatum, Actinomyces naeslundii, Prevotella nigrescens, and Streptococcus mutans. | 2016/ [125] |
| Aqua extract of Hypericum perforatum | Colorimetry, microtitration, and resazurin assays were performed using S. mutans, S. sobrinus, L. plantarum, and E. faecalis. | The extract showed high antibacterial potential against S. sobrinus and L. plantarum but moderate antibacterial potential against S. mutans and E. faecalis. | 2016/ [126] |
| Essential oils extracted from 8 Guatemalan medicinal plants | MIC assay was exerted in vitro on S. aureus, E. coli, S. mutans, L. acidophilus, and C. albicans. | S. mutans showed high sensitivity to all used essential oils. C. albicans was sensitive to 4 species. | 2015/ [127] |
| Ligustrum robustum | In vitro microbial tests and high-resolution microscopy were used to assess the effect of herbal extract against S. mutans biofilm and exopolysaccharide formation. | The extract downregulated the expression of quorum sensing factors and genes encoding glucosyltransferase in S. mutans. | 2021/ [96] |
| Quercetin Kaempferol |
MIC and MBC assays were evaluated in vitro using S. mutans. | These materials reduced biofilm formation, protein expression, cell proliferation, and glucan production. | 2019/ [128] |
| Houttuynia cordata ethanol extract (wHCP) | The antimicrobial and antibiofilm potentials of a water solution of extract were evaluated on a number of oral pathogens in vitro. | wHCP showed limited antimicrobial potential but high antibiofilm effects against F. nucleatum, S. mutans, and C. albicans. | 2016/ [93] |
| LongZhang gargle | The antibiofilm and antiacid effects of LongZhang gargle on S. mutans were evaluated in vitro. | LongZhang Gargle displayed a significant antimicrobial activity. | 2016/ [129] |
|
Equisetum giganteum
Punica granatum |
In vitro microbial tests and microscopy were used to test herb extracts' potential against Candida albicans. | Herb extracts synergized the antibiofilm effect of adhesive materials. | 2018/ [130] |
|
Azadirachta indica
Mimusops elengi Chlorhexidine gluconate |
The remaining microbial load on the extracted tooth sections after the antimicrobial treatment was evaluated in vitro. | Herb extracts displayed significant antimicrobial effects. | 2015/ [131] |
|
Mangifera indica
Ocimum sanctum |
E. faecalis planktonic growth was tested in vitro. | Herb extracts significantly reduced the growth amount. | 2013/ [132] |
| Mentha piperita essential oils | The molecular effect of sub-MIC volume of the essential oil loaded on a chitosan nanogel was evaluated on biofilm formation-associated gene expression of S. mutans. | The expression levels of gtfB, gtfC, gtfD, gbpB, spaP, brpA, relA, and vicR genes showed alterations. | 2019/ [82] |
| Methanolic extracts of Myrtus communis L. and Eucalyptus galbie | The antibiofilm effects of MIC and MBC levels of herb extracts were evaluated on Enterococcus faecalis. | The herb extracts had significant antimicrobial potential. | 2019/ [133] |
|
Piper nigrum
Piper longum Zingiber officinale |
Molecular tests were used to assess the antibacterial effect of herbal and chemical medicaments against E. faecalis. | The herb extracts showed antibacterial activity lower than calcium hydroxide and higher than saline. | 2019/ [134] |
| Galla chinensis extract (GCE) | The extract was applied to the polymicrobial plaque model in vitro. | GCE inhibited excess acid production by the biofilms. | 2012/ [88] |
| Nigella sativa Lin. | The effect of herb oil was studied on Fusobacterium nucleatum and Actinomyces naeslundii biofilm formation in vitro and using high-resolution microscopy. | Thymol and thymoquinone (the active constituents of herbal oil) have an inhibitory effect on biofilm formation. | 2020/ [87] |
| Garlic extract | Three concentrations of herb extract were examined on E. faecalis biofilm formation. | The biofilm production significantly decreased in a concentration-dependent manner. | 2015/ [135] |
| Triphala | The antibiofilm effect of herb extract against S. mutans was studied ex vivo on tooth substrate. | Triphala significantly reduced the biofilm formation by S. mutans. | 2014/ [136] |
| Chemical materials | |||
| Ethanolic extract of Polish propolis (EEPP) | Clinical-isolated coagulase-negative staphylococci and S. epidermidis were used for assessing the antibacterial activity of EEPP in vitro. | EEPP reduced bacterial growth and biofilm formation. | 2013/ [137] |
| Chlorhexidine varnish | Digital photography was used in orthodontic patients. | Chlorhexidine varnish decreased bacterial growth. | 2015/ [138] |
| Erythritol powder | Periodontal therapy was performed for six months, and microbial/clinical outcomes were assessed in the clinic. | Compared to GPAP, EPAP was less abrasive and produced smaller particles. | 2015/ [139] |
| Dentifrice containing Eugenia uniflora | The antibacterial effect of the dentifrice on 3 oral bacteria (S. mutans, S. oralis, and L. casei) was examined in vitro. | The tested dentifrice had significant antibacterial effect. | 2016/ [140] |
| Methylene blue-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic) nanoparticles (MB-NP) | MB-NP was applied to multistrain dental biofilm in vitro and followed by photodynamic therapy (PDT). | The combination of MB-NP and PDT resulted in improving clinical parameters. | 2016/ [141] |
| MB-NP | Dental plaques underwent PDT in a clinical pilot study. Planktonic and biofilm phases were assessed in vitro. | PDT was confirmed as a safe treatment that improved clinical parameters. | 2016/ [141] |
| Stannous fluoride and zinc citrate dentifrice | Mineralized biofilms were used to examine the antibiofilm potential of mouthwash in vitro and in vivo. | The used dentifrice decreased calcium accumulation in the biofilm. | 2017/ [142] |
| Stannous fluoride or triclosan dentifrices | The effects of two dentifrices on oral biofilm models (acid production/glycolysis inhibition) and plaque growth were assessed in vitro and in vivo, respectively. | Stannous fluoride dentifrice significantly reduced glycolysis and plaque growth. | 2017/ [143] |
| 3 commercially available kinds of toothpaste Chlorhexidine |
The bactericidal effect of materials on a baseline biofilm flora was examined in vitro. | All kinds of toothpaste showed significant bactericidal effects but were lower than the chlorhexidine mouth rinse. | 2018/ [144] |
| Doxycycline hyclate-containing resin | S. mutans microbial load was evaluated after a 3-month clinical trial. | The composite resin could eliminate all bacteria. | 2018/ [145] |
| Toothpaste containing zinc oxide, zinc citrate, and L-arginine | All silica-based kinds of toothpaste were used on the oral bacteria on the teeth, tongue, cheeks, and gums. | The designed product could significantly reduce bacterial load in all samples. | 2018/ [146] |
| Polysiloxane- and chlorhexidine-containing alcoholic solution | The bacterial load on bilateral fixed prostheses or crown restorations with a medicament-coated internal chamber was tested in a clinical study by molecular assays. | Polymeric chlorhexidine-coated implants displayed a limiting effect on the bacterial load of the peri-implant tissue. | 2019/ [7] |
| Propolis solution Alkaline peroxide |
Digital photography and microbiological quantifications were performed on Candida spp. and S. mutans biofilms. | Both materials displayed significant bactericidal and antifungal effects. | 2019/ [147] |