Table 2.
Clinical studies in oral biofilm treatments.
| Type | Method | Outcomes | Year/Ref |
|---|---|---|---|
| Herbal materials | |||
| Allium tuberosum Coriandrum sativum Cymbopogon martini Cymbopogon winterianus Santolina chamaecyparissus |
MIC of extracts and essential oils and their antibiofilm effect against C. albicans were evaluated in vitro. Chromatography, spectrometry, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for biochemical evaluations. | The C. sativum essential oil and crude oil inhibited biofilm formation and growth. | 2011/ [148] |
| Aloe vera gel | The antimicrobial effect of Aloe vera gel against some oral pathogenic bacteria was evaluated in vitro. | An optimum concentration of Aloe vera gel displayed significant antiseptic function against dental and periodontal pathogens. | 2012/ [149] |
|
Equisetum arvense L.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Punica granatum L. Stryphnodendron barbatimam |
The antibacterial effect and cytotoxicity of plant extracts were tested in vitro. | All plant extracts displayed antibacterial effect. E. arvense L. extract and G. glabra L. extract showed the highest and lowest cytotoxic effect, respectively. | 2013/ [150] |
| Mouth rinse containing Acacia nilotica | The antibacterial effect of Acacia nilotica was evaluated against S. mutans in a clinical trial recruiting volunteer. | A. nilotica significantly decreased the bacterial load. | 2015/ [151] |
| Green tea Salvadora persica L. aqueous |
Antibacterial effect of the combined mouthwash was evaluated against plaque accumulation. | The combined mouthwash significantly decreased plaque formation. | 2016/ [152] |
| Phloretin | The effect of flavonoids on the growth and biofilm formation of S. aureus strains was evaluated in vitro. | Even sub-MIC values of flavonoids could inhibit the biofilm formation. | 2017/ [72] |
| Ricinus communis and sodium hypochlorite | The antimicrobial effect was evaluated using molecular methods. | The denture cleanser effectively inhibited biofilm formation by C. albicans. | 2017/ [153] |
| Propolis Chlorhexidine |
Antioxidative and antibacterial effects of both materials were compared by evaluating clinical parameters. | Propolis-based formula showed similar clinical chlorhexidine. | 2018/ [154] |
| Carica papaya leaf extract | Clinical outcomes were evaluated during a 4-week treatment period. | The herb-containing dentifrice showed similar effect to other used mouthwashes on the gingival bleeding. | 2018/ [111] |
| Juglans regia L. | Antibacterial effect of herb extract against P. aeruginosa isolated from burn, tracheal, and urine infections was evaluated in vitro. | The herb extract displayed antibiofilm effect on a concentration-dependent manner. | 2018/ [155] |
| Melaleuca alternifolia nanoparticles mouthwash with chlorhexidine gluconate | Plaque and gingival clinical parameters as well as participants' perceptions were assessed in recruited subjects. | Chlorhexidine resulted in a better taste, higher antibiofilm effect, and more taste change. | 2019/ [91] |
| Mouth rinse containing guava leaf extract | Guava was compared to chlorhexidine in terms of antimicrobial and antioxidant effects by clinical and microbial assessments. | Guava leaf extract showed similar antibiofilm effects compared to chlorhexidine. | 2019/ [94] |
| Melaleuca alternifolia | The effect of herb was compared to chlorhexidine in terms of clinical parameters. | The anti-inflammatory potential of two materials displayed to be similar. | 2019/ [91] |
| Probiotic yogurt containing Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 | Antibacterial effect of probiotic yogurt on salivary bacteria was evaluated. | The probiotic yogurt significantly reduced the salivary bacteria. | 2020/ [156] |
|
Ricinus communis
Chloramine-T Sodium hypochlorite |
The antimicrobial effect against Candida spp. was compared among the three material counts by clinical assessments and photography. | All materials improved denture stomatitis and reduce biofilm formation while sodium hypochlorite had the highest efficacy. | 2020/ [157] |
| Leaf extracts of Citrus hystrix DC, Moringa oleifera Lam., and Azadirachta indica A. Juss. | The effect of herb extracts was studied on gingivitis and compared to chlorhexidine gluconate in terms of clinical and oral microbial parameters. | Moringa oleifera Lam. significantly reduced gingivitis and plague. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. showed high antimicrobial effect against Staphylococcus and Candida strains. | 2021/ [158] |
| Chemical materials | |||
| Mouthwash containing essential oils | Biofilms were stained and analyzed by microscopy. | Bacterial vitality was reduced significantly. | 2015/ [159] |
| Taurolidine Chlorhexidine |
The efficacy of treatments on biofilm removal was evaluated using clinical outcome parameters. | Taurolidine enhanced antibiofilm effect. | 2015/ [160] |
| Glycine powder Sodium bicarbonate |
Both materials were used as air polishing. Gingival and clinical parameters were evaluated. | Glycine powder air polishing significantly improved the measured parameters. | 2015/ [161] |
| Polymethyl-methacrylate and Ag nanoparticles | Antibacterial potential of two formulations against cariogenic bacteria was assessed. | Both formulations inhibited biofilm formation of all tested bacteria. | 2015/ [162] |
| Toothpaste containing fluoride and fluoride plus sodium trimetaphosphate | The antibiofilm effect of toothpaste was assessed. | The formulations containing sodium trimetaphosphate showed higher antibiofilm potentials. | 2015/ [163] |
| Triclosan formula | The antiplaque effects were assessed in vitro. | Including triclosan in formulation significantly inhibited plaque formation. | 2015/ [164] |
| Floss impregnated with chlorhexidine gluconate | Antibiofilm effect was assessed on 4 different surfaces (mesiobuccal, distobuccal, mesiolingual, and distolingual). | Chlorhexidine-impregnated floss displayed synergic reducing effect on supragingival biofilm. | 2015/ [165] |
| Chlorhexidine gluconate Essential oils Cetylpyridinium chloride Triclosan Hamamelis virginiana |
The inhibitory effect of all materials against bacterial plaque was evaluated. | All mouthwashes containing the five ingredients significantly reduced the biofilm formation. | 2015/ [166] |
| Mouthwash containing Matricaria chamomilla L. and chlorhexidine | Clinical parameters were evaluated in a clinical trial. | The mouthwash significantly reduced the visible plaque formation and gingival bleeding. | 2016/ [167] |
| Triclosan | Clinical parameters were evaluated in a clinical trial. | No considerable change occurred in the plaque and gingival indexes of triclosan-treated subjects. | 2016/ [168] |
| Sodium perborate Chlorhexidine |
The antibiofilm effect of disinfection agents was assessed in vitro. | Brushing combined with agents successfully inhibited biofilm formation on dentures. | 2016/ [169] |
| Stannous fluoride (SnF2) | Dental plaque was sampled and evaluated in terms of gingival inflammation and bleeding. | SnF2-containing dentifrice improved clinical outcomes of gingivitis and plaque. | 2017/ [170] |
| — | Scaling and root planing with or without laser diode was assessed in terms of clinical, microbiological, and inflammatory effects. | Diode laser synergically improved parameters. | 2017/ [171] |
| Chlorhexidine solutions | The antiplaque effect on clinical samples was examined in vitro. | The treatment significantly prevented plaque and subgingival biofilm formation. | 2017/ [172] |
| Acidulated phosphate fluoride | The antibiofilm effect against salivary S. mutans was studied in vitro after topical application. | The treatment displayed no inhibitory effect on salivary or biofilm bacterial load. | 2017/ [173] |
| Toothpaste containing arginine | Some biochemical and microbial parameters were evaluated. | The treatment reduced lactic acid production. | 2017/ [174] |
| Fluoride-impregnated toothbrush Fluoride-containing toothpaste |
The remained fluoride in saliva and antiplaque effects were evaluated on buccal and lingual surfaces. | Both treatments displayed similar plaque-removing outcomes. | 2017/ [175] |
| Saline Sodium hypochlorite Ricinus communis |
The antibiofilm effect against Candida spp. on the intaglio surface of maxillary dentures was evaluated using photography and quantifying software. | Only different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite displayed antimicrobial effect. | 2017/ [176] |
| Hyaluronic acid mouthwash Chlorhexidine |
Plaque and clinical parameters were evaluated in clinics. | The mouthwash showed a marginally less inhibitory effect on plaque formation compared to chlorhexidine. | 2017/ [176] |
| Silver/fluoride nanoparticles | The bactericidal and antibiofilm effects were evaluated on S. mutans. | Nanoparticles were reported to be effective and suggested for clinical application in order to limit dental biofilm formation. | 2017/ [177] |
| Mouth rinse containing chlorhexidine gluconate | Antimicrobial effect against S. mutans was analyzed using microscopy. | The intense contamination showed no significant difference in the microbial load. | 2017/ [178] |
| Probiotic (B. lactis)-containing lozenges | Lozenges were used with scaling and root planning. Clinical, immunological, and microbial parameters were monitored. | The treated subjects displayed higher antibacterial and lower inflammatory effects. | 2018/ [179] |
| Propolis/herbs in antioxidant-based formula Chlorhexidine-based formulae |
A couple clinical parameters were monitored in a 3-month trial study. | The two formulas displayed similar clinical outcomes. | 2018/ [154] |
| Sodium bicarbonate | A couple clinical parameters were monitored in a clinical trial. | Sodium bicarbonate displayed increasing antibacterial effect. | 2018/ [180] |
| Modified antimicrobial peptide | A couple clinical parameters were evaluated in a clinical trial. | The modified peptide displayed antibacterial effect against periodontal bacteria. | 2018/ [180] |
| Fluoridated dentifrice containing arginine | A couple clinical and microbial parameters were examined. | Arginine did not display any additional antibiofilm effect. | 2018/ [181] |
| Edathamil-containing gel | Antiplaque effect was evaluated by photography. | Edathamil increased the plaque removal. | 2018/ [182] |
| Toothpastes containing different concentrations of sodium bicarbonate | Antiplaque effect was measured before and after a single-timed brushing. | No statistically significant difference was observed. | 2018/ [183] |
| Dentifrices containing different ratios of sodium fluoride and tara gum | The fluoride concentration was determined using a physicochemical technique. | The antibiofilm effect displayed no statistically significant differences. | 2018/ [184] |
| Chlorhexidine digluconate-impregnated dental floss | The plaque index was assessed in clinics. | The impregnated floss significantly reduced the plaque formation. | 2018/ [185] |
| Metronidazole Amoxicillin |
Subjects were treated with systemic antibiotic as an adjuvant therapy, and antibiofilm outcome was evaluated. | No significant differences were observed in clinical parameters. | 2019/ [186] |
| Arginine- or fluoride-containing toothpastes | Caries diagnosis and plaque sampling were performed on tooth surfaces, and antiplaque effects were evaluated in vitro. | The arginine deiminase system was significantly activated, and the acidity was reduced in the plaque. Fluoride reduced plaque lactate production. | 2019/ [187] |
| Sodium hypochlorite Chlorhexidine gluconate Sodium bicarbonate |
Antimicrobial activity was quantified in healthy complete denture wearers through chemical analysis. | Sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine significantly decreased microbial viability. | 2019/ [188] |
| Lozenges containing probiotic Streptococcus salivarius M18 | Plaque and gingival outcomes were measured in orthodontic brace wearers using molecular analyses. | Treatment had no effect on microbial parameters. | 2019/ [189] |
| Mouth rinses containing chlorhexidine and guava | Plaque and gingival indexes were measured. | Plaque and gingival indexes as well as microbial counts showed gradual reduction. | 2019/ [94] |
| Triclosan toothpaste | Plaque and gingival indexes were measured. | Triclosan toothpaste displayed antiplaque effect. | 2020/ [108] |
| Triclosan toothpaste | Plaque index and gingival bleeding were measured. | Treatment with triclosan toothpaste reduced gingival bleeding and plaque formation. | 2020/ [190] |
| Sodium hypochlorite gel | Pocket probing depth was evaluated before and after treatment. | No statistically significant difference was observed. | 2020/ [191] |
| Sodium hypochlorite Dettol and Lifebuoy liquid soap Phosphate-buffered saline |
The antimicrobial effect against Candida spp. was evaluated in vitro. | All three treatments significantly reduced the microbial load. | 2020/ [192] |
| Ozonated water | The antiplaque and antibiofilm effects were assessed in vitro. | No statistical difference was observed. | 2021/ [193] |
| Mouth rinses containing chlorhexidine with or without hydrogen peroxide | The antiplaque effect was studied in vitro. | Both mouth rinses significantly controlled the plaque formation. Hydrogen peroxide had a slightly synergistic effect. | 2021/ [194] |