Table 3.

Summary of advances in 3D bioprinting for urological cancers.

Bioprinting Strategies	Bioinks	Tissue Types	Key Research Points	References
Extrusion-based with rotating structure	PCL	Human mesenchymal progenitor cells and PCa cells	PCa cells demonstrate preference to the engineered bone constructs, proliferate, and developed macro-metastases	Holzapfel [175]
Extrusion-based with rotating structure	PCL/calcium phosphate	Human osteoblasts and PDXs	PCa cells have osteomimicry gene expression and protein secretion after bone metastasis	Shokoohmanda [176]
Electrowritten	PCL	Osteoprogenitor cells and PCa cells	Display functional and molecular features consistent with clinical bone metastases profile	Bock [128]
Electrowritten	PCL	Primary patient derived cancer-associated fibroblast, mast cells, and PCa cells	First time that found the linkage between mast cell and PCa progression	Pereira [129]
Extrusion-based	Polyurethane/polyvinyl alcohol	PCa cells	Locally deliver chemotherapeutics	Ahangar [177]
Magnetic bioprinting	Scaffold free	Renal tumor cells and primary fibroblasts	Recapitulated several features of the disease found in humans	Rosette [112]
Extrusion-based	Collagen-based	Renal cancer cells	Highly controlled and reproducible TME	Herradamanchon [86]
Extrusion-based and microfluidic devices	Ethoxylated bisphenol A diacrylate/tripropyleneglycol diacrylate	Renal cancer cells	Prognostic and therapeutic implications for cancer treatments	Chen [178]
Extrusion-based	GelMA	Bladder cancer cells	Closely mimic the in vivo TME	Kim [105]
Piezoelectric inkjet printing	Scaffold free	Bladder cancer cells	Potential method to analyze intratumoral heterogeneity	Yoon [179]
Acoustic droplet printer	Matrigel	Bladder cancer cells and T cells	Provide a platform for personalized tumorimmunotherapy	Gong [180]
Extrusion-based and microfluidic devices	GelMA	Bladder cancer cells and HUVEC	Predict effects of immunotherapeutic agent in bladder cancer	Kim [106]