Table 1.
COVID-19 Effects on the Mental and Physical Health of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Survey Study participant characteristics (N=5068).
| Variables | All | Having racial bias belief | P value | |||||||
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Yesa (n=3749) | No (n=1319) |
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| CRBSb score, mean (SD; range) | 2.59 (0.96; 1-5)a | 2.97 (0.76; 1-5) | 1.53 (0.62; 1-5) | N/Ac | ||||||
| Sociodemographic characteristics, n (%) | ||||||||||
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Cultural group | |||||||||
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Asian Indian | 298 (5.88) | 132 (44.3) | 166 (55.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Ethnic Chinesed | 1786 (35.24) | 1508 (84.4) | 278 (15.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Filipino | 176 (3.47) | 148 (84.1) | 28 (15.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Hmong | 110 (2.17) | 104 (94.6) | 6 (5.4) | <.001 | ||||
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Japanese | 220 (4.34) | 190 (86.4) | 30 (13.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Korean | 1132 (22.34) | 687 (60.7) | 445 (33.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander | 136 (2.68) | 63 (46.3) | 73 (53.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Vietnamese | 953 (18.80) | 690 (72.4) | 263 (27.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Multicultural | 172 (3.4) | 159 (92.4) | 13 (7.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Other | 85 (1.67) | 68 (80) | 17 (20) | <.001 | ||||
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Age (years) | |||||||||
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Values, mean (SD; range) | 45.4 (16.4; 18-97) | 43.2 (16.0; 18-95) | 51.7 (16.0; 18-97) | N/A | ||||
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<30 | 1109 (21.9) | 984 (88.7) | 125 (11.3) | <.001 | ||||
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30-39 | 881 (17.4) | 682 (77.4) | 199 (22.6) | <.001 | ||||
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40-49 | 923 (18.2) | 685 (74.2) | 238 (25.8) | <.001 | ||||
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50-59 | 1048 (20.7) | 737 (70.3) | 311 (29.7) | <.001 | ||||
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≥60 | 1107 (21.8) | 661 (59.7) | 446 (33.8) | <.001 | ||||
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Sex, n (%) | |||||||||
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Female | 3237 (63.87) | 2469 (76.3) | 768 (23.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Male | 1788 (35.28) | 1249 (69.9) | 539 (30.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Other or decline to state | 43 (0.8) | 31 (72.1) | 12 (27.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Sexual orientation, n (%) | |||||||||
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Heterosexual | 4618 (91.12) | 3388 (73.4) | 1230 (26.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Not heterosexual | 228 (4.49) | 214 (93.9) | 14 (6.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Decline to state | 222 (4.38) | 147 (66.2) | 75 (33.8) | <.001 | ||||
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Education, n (%) | |||||||||
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High school or less | 808 (16.2) | 526 (65.1) | 282 (34.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Some college or technical school | 593 (11.9) | 457 (77.1) | 136 (22.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Bachelor’s degree | 1836 (36.8) | 1420 (77.3) | 416 (22.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Master’s degree or higher | 1748 (35.1) | 1298 (74.3) | 450 (25.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Annual household income (US$), n (%) | |||||||||
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≤25,000 | 847 (15.7) | 549 (64.8) | 298 (35.2) | <.001 | ||||
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>25,000-75,000 | 1389 (27.4) | 1031 (74.2) | 358 (25.8) | <.001 | ||||
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>75,000-150,000 | 1249 (24.6) | 972 (77.8) | 277 (22.2) | <.001 | ||||
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>150,000 | 991 (19.6) | 771 (77.8) | 220 (22.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Decline to state | 592 (11.7) | 426 (72) | 166 (28) | <.001 | ||||
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Employment status, n (%) | |||||||||
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Full-time | 2334 (46.05) | 1793 (76.8) | 541 (23.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Part-time | 870 (17.16) | 637 (73.2) | 233 (26.8) | <.001 | ||||
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Homemaker | 430 (8.48) | 282 (65.6) | 148 (34.4) | <.001 | ||||
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Unemployed | 529 (10.44) | 425 (80.3) | 104 (19.7) | <.001 | ||||
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Retired | 570 (11.25) | 365 (64) | 205 (36) | <.001 | ||||
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Other or decline to state | 335 (6.68) | 247 (73.7) | 88 (26.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Marital status, n (%) | |||||||||
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Single | 1398 (27.58) | 1184 (84.7) | 214 (15.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Married or living with partner | 3288 (64.88) | 2295 (69.8) | 993 (30.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Separated, divorced, or widowed | 339 (6.68) | 239 (70.5) | 100 (29.5) | <.001 | ||||
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Declined | 43 (0.8) | 31 (72.1) | 12 (27.9) | <.001 | ||||
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LEPe, n (%) | |||||||||
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Yes | 1165 (22.98) | 657 (56.4) | 508 (43.6) | <.001 | ||||
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No | 3903 (77.01) | 3092 (79.2) | 811 (20.8) | <.001 | ||||
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Nativity, n (%) | |||||||||
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US-born | 1761 (34.75) | 1565 (88.9) | 196 (11.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Foreign-born | 3236 (63.85) | 2126 (65.7) | 1110 (34.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Life in the United States (%), n (%) | |||||||||
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≤25 | 670 (13.22) | 431 (64.3) | 239 (35.7) | <.001 | ||||
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>25 to ≤50 | 1014 (20) | 305 (59.7) | 409 (40.3) | <.001 | ||||
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>50 to ≤75 | 979 (19.32) | 653 (12.9) | 326 (33.3) | <.001 | ||||
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>75 to <100 | 508 (10.0) | 419 (82.5) | 89 (17.5) | <.001 | ||||
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100 | 1761 (34.74) | 1565 (88.9) | 196 (14.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Census region, n (%) | |||||||||
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West | 3288 (64.88) | 2436 (74.1) | 852 (25.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Midwest | 432 (8.52) | 349 (80.8) | 83 (19.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Northeast | 623 (12.29) | 459 (73.7) | 164 (26.3) | <.001 | ||||
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South | 720 (14.21) | 503 (69.9) | 217 (30.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Month and year of survey completion, n (%) | |||||||||
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October 2020 | 390 (7.69) | 335 (85.9) | 55 (14.1) | <.001 | ||||
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November 2020 | 680 (13.42) | 505 (74.3) | 175 (25.7) | <.001 | ||||
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December 2020 | 1350 (26.64) | 1027 (76.1) | 323 (23.9) | <.001 | ||||
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January 2021 | 2317 (45.72) | 1684 (72.7) | 633 (27.3) | <.001 | ||||
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February 2021 | 331 (6.53) | 198 (59.8) | 133 (40.2) | <.001 | ||||
| COVID-19-related experiences and impacts | ||||||||||
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COVID-19 positivity, n (%) | |||||||||
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Yes | 172 (3.39) | 131 (76.2) | 41 (23.8) | <.001 | ||||
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No | 4542 (89.62) | 3398 (74.8) | 1144 (25.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Unsure | 286 (5.64) | 181 (63.3) | 106 (36.7) | <.001 | ||||
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The severity of COVID-19 where they live, n (%) | |||||||||
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A lot less | 447 (8.82) | 303 (67.8) | 144 (32.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Somewhat less | 869 (17.15) | 659 (75.8) | 210 (24.2) | <.001 | ||||
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About the same | 1114 (21.98) | 785 (70.5) | 329 (29.5) | <.001 | ||||
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Somewhat more | 1494 (29.47) | 1114 (74.6) | 380 (25.4) | <.001 | ||||
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A lot more | 1121 (22.12) | 872 (77.8) | 249 (22.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Length of SIPf order | |||||||||
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No order | 355 (7.0) | 178 (50.1) | 177 (49.9) | <.001 | ||||
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<1 month | 272 (5.36) | 175 (64.3) | 97 (35.7) | <.001 | ||||
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1 to <2 months | 574 (11.33) | 458 (79.8) | 116 (20.2) | <.001 | ||||
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2 to <3 months | 579 (11.42) | 482 (83.3) | 97 (16.7) | <.001 | ||||
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≥3 months | 2826 (55.76) | 2140 (75.7) | 686 (24.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Do not know | 442 (8.72) | 304 (68.8) | 138 (31.2) | <.001 | ||||
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COVID-19 effect on family income or employment, n (%) | |||||||||
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No change | 2086 (41.16) | 1438 (68.9) | 648 (31.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Mild change | 1542 (30.43) | 1198 (77.7) | 344 (26.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Moderate change | 1254 (24.74) | 975 (77.8) | 279 (21.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Severe change | 166 (3.28) | 128 (77.1) | 38 (22.9) | <.001 | ||||
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COVID-19 effect on social support, n (%) | |||||||||
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No change | 1046 (20.64) | 623 (59.6) | 423 (40.4) | <.001 | ||||
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Mild change | 2201 (43.43) | 1623 (73.7) | 578 (26.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Moderate change | 1526 (30.11) | 1263 (82.8) | 263 (17.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Severe change | 249 (4.91) | 213 (85.5) | 36 (14.5) | <.001 | ||||
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COVID-19 effect on medical health care access, n (%) | |||||||||
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No change | 1876 (37.01) | 1288 (68.7) | 588 (31.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Mild change | 1574 (31.05) | 1208 (76.8) | 366 (23.2) | <.001 | ||||
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Moderate change | 1070 (21.11) | 855 (79.9) | 215 (20.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Severe change | 88 (1.73) | 74 (84.1) | 14 (15.9) | <.001 | ||||
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Not applicable | 435 (8.58) | 307 (70.6) | 128 (29.4) | <.001 | ||||
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COVID-19 effect on mental health treatment access, n (%) | |||||||||
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No change | 2271 (44.81) | 1576 (69.4) | 695 (30.6) | <.001 | ||||
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Mild change | 554 (10.93) | 459 (82.9) | 95 (17.1) | <.001 | ||||
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Moderate change | 240 (4.74) | 179 (74.6) | 61 (25.4) | <.001 | ||||
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Severe change | 85 (1.67) | 65 (86.7) | 10 (13.3) | <.001 | ||||
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Not applicable | 1882 (37.13) | 1443 (76.7) | 439 (23.3) | <.001 | ||||
aFor descriptive purposes only, we dichotomized responses to the CRBS items and categorized participants who responded strongly agree or agree to any of the 9 items as having COVID-19–related racial bias beliefs and those who did not as not having the perceptions.
bCRBS: Coronavirus Racial Bias Scale.
cN/A: not applicable.
dEthnic Chinese includes mainland Chinese, Hongkonger, Taiwanese, and Huaren individuals.
eLEP: limited English proficiency. Categorized as limited (yes) if speaking, reading or writing English were indicated as some, a little, or not at all.
fSIP: shelter-in-place.