Figure 3.

Effect of sleep during TBI hospitalization on cognitive outcomes. Better cognitive outcomes 1–4 years following the initial injury were associated with better sleep during hospitalization in the subset of patients that were tested at both stages. Better learning and memory outcomes (composite score including the HVLT and BVMT immediate and delayed recalls) were associated with (A) more stage N3 deep sleep, (B) higher sleep efficiency, and (C) lower wake after sleep onset during hospitalization. (D) Better executive functioning outcomes (composite score including the TMT part B-minus-A and the Tower of London total moves, total correct, and total time) were associated with higher sleep spindle density during hospitalization. Composite scores were originally centered on zero and were translated upwards along the y axis to represent them without crossing the x-axis. Dotted lines represent the 95% confidence interval.