Table 1.

Descriptive characteristics of the included studies on healthy population.

Author, Year	Country	Objective	Population	Chronotype Assessment	PA Assessment	Results
Bodur et al., 2021 [26]	Ankara, Turkey	To determine the role of sleep quality and caffeinated beverage consumption on the effect of late chronotype on body mass index (BMI)	n = 661 healthy university students Age (mean ± SD) 21.4 ± 1.38 years	MEQ	24 h PA record	No significant correlation was found between the chronotype scores and PA levels.
Culnan et al., 2013 [27]	USA	To test the relationship between chronotype in relation to BMI, energy expenditure and others	n = 137 colleges freshmen 79 females Age (mean ± SD) 18.25 ± 0.56	Short version MEQ	Changes in short-IPAQ	Changes in IPAQ did not differ by chronotype.
Gubelman et al., 2018 [28]	Lausanne, Switzerland.	To evaluate the association of objective PA and sedentary behaviour (SB) with sleep duration and quality	n = 2649 adults participating in CoLaus study. 53.5% women. Age (mean ± SD) 61.6 ± 9.8	MEQ	14 days accelerometer	High PA (RRR = 0.71; CI:0.52–0.97) and low sedentary behaviour (0.64; 0.47; 0.86) were significantly associated with lower likelihood of EC.
Haraszti et al., 2014 [29]	Budapest, Hungary	To explore the relationship between morningness–eveningness and perceived health	n = 202 female working at the university. Age (mean ± SD) = 37.5 ± 10.7 years	Composite scale of morningness	Adapted version of short-IPAQ	A significant lower frequency of physical exercise was associated with EC compared to MC (2.28 ± 1.5 vs. 2.85 ± 1.65 times per week; p = 0.042).
Hisler et al., 2017 [30]	Iowa, USA	To analyse if diurnal preference predicts variance in exercise frequency	n = 112 university members (students and faculty). 75% females Age (mean ± SD) 25.4 ±11.6	Composite scale of morningness	-FitBit -IPAQ	Diurnal preference (morningness) was positively correlated with self-reported exercise (r (105) = 0.36) and Fitbit exercise frequency (r (101) = 0.39).
Huang et al., 2021 [31]	UK	To analyse the association between sleep and PA	n = 38,601 UK Biobank participants (51% female, Age (mean ± SD) 55.7 ± 7.6 years	Combined sleep pattern variable	Weekly MET (IPAQ short-form) highly active, ≥1200; active, 600 to <1200; inactive <600)	Poor sleep pattern at baseline was associated with physical inactivity at follow-up (AOR = 1.65; 1.45–1.88) and vice versa.
Laborde et al., 2015 [32]	France	To explore how chronotype relates to various characteristics of sport training and competition	n = 976 non athletes + 974 athletes Women = 493 + 478 mean age 22.49 mean age: 21.21	Caen Chronotype Questionnaire	Sports participation	Morningness–eveningness was unrelated to sport participation
Makarem et al., 2020 [33]	USA	To evaluate associations of chronotype with overall cardiovascular health (CVH), health behaviours and cardiometabolic risk factors	n = 506 women participants of the GO Red study. Age (mean ± SD) = 37 ± 16 year	MEQ	IPAQ sedentary activities questionnaire	EC compared to MC was associated with greater odds of not meeting PA guidelines OR (95%CI) = 1.78 (1.03–3.07). Higher MEQ scores were also associated with significantly less sedentary time β (SE) = −0.11 (0.03).
Mota et al., 2016 [34]	Minas Gerais, Brazil	To analyse the association between chronotype, food intake and PA	n = 72 medical residents 52 women Age (mean ± SD) 29.2 ± 2.0	MEQ	Baecke questionnaire (BQ)	Chronotype score was positivity associated with leisure-time index (coefficient = 0.26, p = 0.03) and BQ total score (coefficient = 0.27, p = 0.03)
Nauha et al., 2020 [35]	Finland	To investigate an association between chronotype and objectively-measured PA and SED	n = 5156 participants Women: 2917 Age: 46 years	Short version MEQ	MET min/day (accelerometers) 14 days	Compared to EC, MC was associated with higher total (B;95%CI) (98.6; [30.2, 167.1] in men and in women (57.8; [10.5, 105.0]. Compared to EC, men with MC had less sedentary time(38.6; [−56.9, −20.2]).
Oliveira et al., 2021 [36]	Brazil	To investigate if PA changes might be associated with changes in the morningness–eveningness preference	n = 322 adults practicing social distancing during COVID-19 lockdown. 69% women Age (mean ± SD) 40 ± 15	Morningness–eveningness questionnaire score	Min/week self-reported questionnaire.	Decrease in the total volume of PA was significantly associated with the increase in eveningness preference. (3.7% p = 0.001) of the variance in the changes in MEQ score)
Patterson et al., 2016 [37]	UK	To examine the associations among sleep duration, chronotype and other variables	n = 439 933 participants in the UK Biobank project. 56% female Age (mean ± SD): 56.5 ± 8.1 years	One question self-reported chronotype questionnaire	-Self-reported minutes/week in walking, moderate and vigorous PA. -Self-reported minutes/day using a computer or TV on a typical day.	Early chronotypes reported accruing more mean minutes of walking (0.178; 0.011), moderate (0.172; 0.012) and vigorous activity (0.172; 0.017) and less screen based sedentary behaviour (0.313; 0.011) than late chronotypes (β; SE)
Shechter et al., 2014 [38]	USA	To determine if sleep timing and/or quality are related to PA levels.	n = 22 participants 6 females Age range: 30–45 year	-Bedtime and wake-up time and midpoint of sleep (accelerometer) -MEQ	Accelerometers 7–18 days. Sedentary <100 cpm, light PA 100–1951, MVPA >1952 cpm	Later bedtime, wake time and midpoint of sleep are all associated with more time spent in sedentary (p < 0.02) and less time spent in light PA (p < 0.05) and MVPA (p < 0.01). Higher MEQ had a significantly higher percentage of time in MVPA compared to those in the lower MEQ group (4.64% vs. 1.99%). No differences were observed in the low versus high MEQ score subgroups in percentage of time spent in sedentary or light PA.
Suh et al., 2016 [39]	Korea	To investigate health behaviours, health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and sleep among chronotypes in a community-based sample	n = 2976 participants of the Korean KoGes study. 83 + 828 + 535 men Age (mean ± SD): 58.02 years ±7.05	MEQ	METs: seven days PA Recall (retrospective self-reported)	EC were found to have significantly lower levels of PA (MET; SD = 14.54; 23.33) compared to MC (24.70; 30.41) p < 0.0001
Thapa et al., 2020 [40]	Korea	To examine the association between chronotype, daily PA and the estimated risk of dementia	n = 170 community dwelling over 70 102 women Age (mean ± SD): 77.0 years (±3.7 years)	MEQ	Daily PA (accelerometer)	Higher MEQ scores showed a higher volume of PA (r = 0.42, p < 0.005) for aged >75y and (r = 0.31, p < 0.05) for ≤75y.
Wennman et al., 2015 [41]	Finland	To operationalize chronotype using analysis for a 6-item scale derived from the original MEQ	n = 4904 participants aged 25–74 years	Short version MEQ	-Leisure time PA, commuting PA, domestic PA (self-reported questionnaire) -Sedentary behaviours: self-reported sitting.	Evening types and the “tired, more-evening type” had higher odds for none to very low (OR [95%CI] = 3.01 [2.00, 4.53] as well as low PA (1.47 [1.01–2.13]), as compared to “morning type”. Evening type was associated with higher odds for more time spent sitting, as compared to “morning type” (1.69 [1.19, 2.41]).
Whittier et al., 2014 [42]	Peru	To evaluate patterns of circadian preferences and daytime sleepiness, and to examine the association between the consumption of stimulant beverages and evening chronotype	n = 2581 undergraduate students Age (mean ± SD): 21.1 ± 2.7) 61% women	MEQ	Self-reported PA (yes/no)	PA was not significantly associated with chronotype status.
Zhang et al., 2018 [43]	China	To explore whether increased caffeinated drinks consumption and PA can mediate the relationship between late chronotype and BMI.	n = 616 medical students Age (mean ± SD): 19.7 ± 1.1 34.9% male	MEQ	-One question self-reported moderate PA -One question self-reported sedentary behaviour.	Late chronotypes were associated with more sedentary behaviours (B = −0.05, SE = 0.01, p < 0.001) and less PA time (B= 0.12, SE = 0.01, p < 0.001)

AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio; EC: evening chronotype; IPAQ: international physical activity questionnaire; MC: morning chronotype; MEQ: morningness–eveningness questionnaire; MET: metabolic equivalent of tasks; MVPA: Moderate to Vigorous physical activity; PA: physical activity; RRR: Risk Relative Ratio; TAP: Temperature, activity and position; SE: standard error.