Figure 3.

The microbiota-derived metabolites and their impact on liver inflammation, oxidative stress, and the development of liver diseases. Gut microbiome dysbiosis impairs the bile acids and choline metabolism, increases hepatotoxicity, and promotes inflammation. The microbiota-derived metabolites and the augmented food absorptions increase the intrahepatic production and accumulation of lipids, which causes increased inflammation and oxidative stress. Due to these events, the liver loses its capacity for wound repair response, and in addition to the augmented hepatocytes death and the augmented activation of stellate cells, liver massive fibrosis occurs. LPS: lipopolysaccharide; OS: oxidative stress, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; FFA: free fat acids; CRP: C reactive protein.