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MAPKs cascades: MAPK signalling cascades are organized hierarchically into three-tiered modules. MAPKs are phosphorylated and activated by MAPK-kinases (MAP2Ks), which in turn are phosphorylated and activated by MAPKK-kinases (MAP3Ks). The MAP3Ks are in turn activated by interaction with the family of small GTPases and/or other protein kinases, connecting the MAPK module to cell surface receptors or external stimuli.
