Fig. 3.

The depiction of defense arsenal mechanisms of resistance in bacteria against conventionally used antibiotics. The presence of antibiotic resistance elements in pathogens has made AMR more challenging because of prevalence of HGT. Certain bacterial species are inherently resistant to antibiotics because of an impermeable membrane or lack of the antibiotic targets. Few have MDR efflux pumps that remove antibiotics from the bacteria. Some microbes possess altered genes, target protein, disabling the antibiotic-binding site(s). Inactivation of antibiotic can occur by covalent modification of antibiotics. The AMR mechanism in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can be different because of morphological and structural differences