TABLE 3.

Subgroup analysis results of the association between sleep disturbance and mental health.

Outcome	Number of included studies	Heterogeneity test results		Effect model	Meta-analysis result
		P	I2 (%)		Effect size(95%CI)	P
Correlation coefficient	12	<0.001	87.4	RE1	0.43 (0.39–0.47)	<0.001
COVID-19
Non-epidemic period	6	<0.001	79.0	RE	0.40 (0.36–0.44)	<0.001
Epidemic period	7	<0.001	90.6	RE	0.45 (0.37–0.53)	<0.001
Mental health
Burnout	3	0.210	35.9	FE	0.35 (0.31–0.39)	<0.001
Anxiety	7	0.022	61.9	RE	0.46 (0.42–0.49)	<0.001
Depression	4	<0.001	93.1	RE	0.44(0.32–0.54)	<0.001
Distress	1	/	/	/	0.20 (0.09–0.31)	<0.001
Mental health complaints	1	/	/	/	0.59 (0.49–0.67)	<0.001
Odds ratio	18	<0.001	89.4	RE	3.74 (2.76–5.07)	<0.001
COVID-19
Non-epidemic period	11	<0.001	88.3	RE	3.18 (2.08–4.85)	<0.001
Epidemic period	7	<0.001	91.1	RE	4.48 (2.74–7.32)	<0.001
Mental health
PTSD	1	/	/	/	5.70 (2.89–11.23)	<0.001
Anxiety	3	0.006	80.4	RE	3.57 (1.19–10.74)	0.023
Depression	10	<0.001	93.6	RE	3.24 (2.10–5.01)	<0.001
Stress	2	0.040	76.3	RE	8.91 (2.54–31.28)	<0.001
Burnout	6	0.299	17.6	FE	3.20 (2.34–4.37)	<0.001
Sleep disturbance
Low sleep quality	14	<0.001	89.8	RE	4.08 (2.86–5.81)	<0.001
Short sleep duration	4	<0.001	80.7	RE	2.66 (1.51–4.67)	<0.001

¹RE, random effect model; FE, fixed effect model.